Crown Heights - Exploring the grid

CROWN HEIGHTSExploring the Grid

Antrees Engelen

Koen Moesen

Pieter Van den Poel

Arnout Van Soom

Sofie Verjans

Essay

Copyright by K.U.Leuven

Without written permission of the promoters and the authors it is forbidden to reproduce or adapt in any form or by any means any part of this publication. Requests for obtaining the right to reproduce or utilize parts of this publication should be addressed to K.U.Leuven, Faculty of Engineering Kasteelpark Arenberg 1, B-3001 Heverlee (Belgi). Telefoon +32-16-32 13 50 & Fax. +32-16-32 19 88.

A written permission of the promotor is also required to use the methods, products, schematics and programs described in this work for industrial or commercial use, and for submitting this publication in scientific contests.

All images in this booklet are, unless credits are given, made or drawn by the authors (Studio Brooklyn).

CROWN HEIGHTSExploring the Grid

Antrees Engelen

Koen Moesen

Pieter Van den Poel

Arnout Van Soom

Sofie Verjans

5East New York

SOCIAL ENCLAVES PLANNING THE CITY LIVING MODELS CITY ECOLOGY

12 CASE STUDIES

BROOKLYN 101

SITE ANALYSIS

SITE ANALYSIS

SITE ANALYSIS

CASE STUDIES

COLLECTIVE CULTURE

13 EXPERIMENTS

EXPERIMENTS

Red Hook

Crown Heights

The Studio Brooklyn Graduation Project consists of a series of books and thirteen postcards. First of is Five Chapters on a City Life, created by the complete group that works around the observations we did on our trip. The book also holds thirteen postcards, each freezing a memory of an urban experiment we experienced during our stay in New York.The second book contains twelve case studies on a wide array of topics, relevant to the condition in Brooklyn. Then there are three site analyzes carried out by three to five students in the neighborhoods of Red Hook, Crown Heights and East New York. Throughout the different documents we jump in three scales: the borough, our strip from old port to airport and finally the three chosen neighborhoods.

Red HookCrown Heights

East New York

The Studio Brooklyn Graduation Project

consists of a series of books and thirteen

postcards. First is Five Chapters on a City

Life, created by the complete group that

works around the observations we did on

our trip.

Then second are three site analyses

carried out by three to five students in

the neighborhoods of Red Hook, Crown

Heights and East New York.

This booklet is a specific analysis of the

neighborhood Crown Heights.

Throughout the different documents we

jump in three scales: the borough, our strip

from old port to airport and finally the three

chosen neighborhoods. Our neighborhood

Crown Heights is located in the center of

Brooklyn, and presents itself mostly as a

black neighborhood.

This analysis starts with an overview

of Crown Heights cultural history, from

the original inhabitants in the 1700s until

the ethnic diversity today. Maps of the

population of Crown Heights show different

trends that are currently occurring. In the

following chapter, the infrastructure of the

neighborhood is set out in various maps,

coupled with the land use.

Subsequently the different typologies

in the neighborhood are explored, and

to conclude our analysis, some shifting

tendencies are examined.

We made this booklet to gain insight in the

neighborhood Crown Heights, to start our

individual design proposals with proper

knowledge.

13 EXPERIMENTS

EXPERIMENTS

The Studio Brooklyn Graduation Project consists of a series of books and thirteen postcards. First of is Five Chapters on a City Life, created by the complete group that works around the observations we did on our trip. The book also holds thirteen postcards, each freezing a memory of an urban experiment we experienced during our stay in New York.The second book contains twelve case studies on a wide array of topics, relevant to the condition in Brooklyn. Then there are three site analyzes carried out by three to five students in the neighborhoods of Red Hook, Crown Heights and East New York. Throughout the different documents we jump in three scales: the borough, our strip from old port to airport and finally the three chosen neighborhoods.

Red HookCrown Heights

East New York

PREFACE

P23Ethnic Diversity

P5Location of Crown Heights

P11Crown Heights Grid

P15Historical Map 1845

P17Historical Map 1890

P27Transportation

P29Subway Lines

P31Long Island Railroad

P33Bike Routes

P39Public Housing

P47Spatial Indicators of Gentrification

P19Map 2012

P45Level of Education

P37Residential Landuse

P43Unemployment and Public Safety

CONTENTS

Mindmap P09

Crown Heights Grid P11

[1] Cultural History Historical Map 1845 P15

Historical Map 1890 P17

Map 2012 P19

Timeline P21

Ethnic Diversity P23

[2] Infrastructure Transportation P27

Subway lines P29

Long Island Railroad P31

Bike routes P33

[3] Typologies Residential Land Use P37

Public Housing P39

[4] Shifting TendenciesUnemployment and Public Safety P43

Level of Education P45

Spatial indicators of gentrification P47

References

8 | MindmapINTRODUCTION

10 |

The analysis presented in this booklet is an

introduction to 5 design proposals located

in Crown Heights. The designs are all on

different scales, and they deal with various

topics.

A first approach to analyse Crown

Heights was to define the borders of the

neighborhood. This approach taught us

that neighborhoods with the grid as only

structure dont have specific borders.

The aspects that form these borders can

change in a very short period of time. That

is why we changed our area of analysis to

a larger area, including parts of adjacent

neighborhoods: Bed-Stuy, Brownsville,

Prospect Heights, East Flatbush and

Lefferts Garden.

Crown Heights GridINTRODUCTION

Historical Map 1845

Historical Map 1890

Map 2012

Timeline

Ethnic Diversity

CULTURAL HISTORY

14

In 1609, the English explorer Henry Hudson arrived in what is now called the New York Harbor. By the 1630s, Dutch and English settlers were exploring the west of Long Island. Crown Heights was then a hilly forested area inhabited by Lenape Indians. By the 1660-s, the area around the northwestern corner of Crown Heights became known as Bedford. Its roads were based on the Lenapes hunting paths, which on their turn were based on the topography. The settlement was located along one of Long Islands most important road which connected Jamaica with the East River ferries. By the time of the American Revolution (1775-1783) Brooklyn was an agricultural community, housing about four thousand inhabitants. Bedford Corners was a small village with a tavern, a blacksmith, a school, a brewery, and a couple of farmhouses. In the early 1800-s, Bedford was the home of many prominent Dutch families like the Lefferts family. In 1836, the Brooklyn & Jamaica Railroad (later part of the Long Island Rail Road LIRR) opened and connected the East Rivers South Ferry with Jamaica. Although Bedford had a train station, not much development took place. Downtown Brooklyns development would eventually reach Bedford.

CULTURAL HISTORY | Map 1845

[1] Bedfort Corners in 1776

16

City planners designed the street grid in 1855 to stimulate urban development. The grid was based on the main streets of the small existing villages, which on their turn were based on the topography, like the Brooklyns Green Mountains before it was flattened. Although Brooklyns population grew to about 400.000 in 1870, Crown Heights only developed slowly. The Eastern Parkway and Prospect Park, both designed by Olmsted and Vaux, were completed around 1868. By the 1870-s, an extensive network of horse car routes and three city railroads linked North Crown Heights with the many East River ferries. The area was being promoted as a first-class neighborhood and became one of Manhattans suburbs. But its growth appeared to be limited by the unreliability of the ferries, which were dependent on the weather. The completion of the Brooklyn Bridge in 1883 offered a solution to this problem. Residential construction increased although North Crown Heights largest development only came after the opening of the Kings County Elevated Railway in 1888, which went from the Fulton Ferry to Nostrand Avenue. By the mid-1890-s, the former rural area was transformed into a suburban and urban neighborhood. Transportation improvements, like the electrification of the horse car lines and construction of the street grid continued throughout the 1890-s.


[1] Bedfort Corners in 1776 and 1916

18

In 1898, the year in which Brooklyn

fused with the four other boroughs into

New York City, the first electrified Kings

County Railway train crossed the Brooklyn

Bridge. The direct ride from Crown Heights

North to Lower Manhattan made the

neighborhood an even more desirable

residential area. The area developed from

towards Eastern Parkway in the south, and

to west and east along the Kings County

Railway. Even after the completion of the

street grid, residential typologies continued

to evolve: in the 1920-s, developers began

demolishing the largest mansions in former

exclusive residential streets in order to build

apartment houses. Housing development

in south Crown Heights around Eastern

Parkway strongly increased with the

opening of the subway line in 1920. But the

neighborhood declined through the 1960-

s as apartment buildings were abandoned

and the community steadily became

poorer. This is also represented by the

construction of public housing throughout

the 1970-s. Nowadays, north Crown

Heights experiences a gentrification wave

from Prospect Heights towards the historic

districts in the center of Crown Heights.


20

Total Population (100%)

White (%)

Black (%)

Hispanic (%)

As mentioned before, Crown Heights was the former home of the western Long Islands native Lenape Indians. Their tribes and paths ran across the area until it was purchased in 1700 by Leffert Pieterse, to be farmed by African American slaves. The opening of the reliable steam driven Fulton Ferry in 1814 caused a flow of people towards Brooklyn. The state New York prohibited slavery in 1827, 38 years before the official nationwide prohibition in 1865. Some of the African Americans purchased property and founded two black communities known as Weeksville and Carrville in the northeast corner of present-day Crown Heights. The area became known as Crow Hill, probably because the white people called the African Americans crows. City planners designed the street grid in 1855. The northern section quickly became a desirable residential area: mansions and limestone row houses were built to replace the old farms. Eastern Parkway was completed in 1868. The boulevard made the northern part of Crown Heights an even more desirable residential area, and more large houses were built. The opening of the Brooklyn Bridge in 1883 and the unification of the five boroughs into New York City caused a second flow of people from Manhattan to Brooklyn. Many brick and brownstone row houses were built. The attractiveness of south Crown Heights increased with the opening of the subway line under the Eastern

Parkway in 1920. Many Jews migrated from the heavily Jewish neighbourhoods of Williamsburg, Brownsville and Manhattans Lower East Side. From the 1920s to the 1960s, Crown Heights was a mainly white neighbourhood, largely composed of Protestants, Catholics, and Jews. In the 1940s, Jews even represented 42% of the white population in Crown Heights. Many were Chabad-Lubavitch (Ultra-Orthodox) Jews who had emigrated from the Soviet Union. 770 Eastern Parkway became their headquarters from then on. After World War II, three developments rapidly changed Crown Heights ethnic composition. The first development was the White Flight: the expanding black population of Bed-Stuy pushed southward while many veterans moved to the suburbs with the assistance of the G.I. Bill. The second development was the 1965 Immigration and Nationality Act, which reformed Americas immigration policy. The Act resulted in a sharp increase in the number of immigrants and their ethnic structure. Whereas immigrants before 1965 came primarily from Europe, after 1965, more than 80 % came from Asia, South and Central America, Africa, and the Caribbean. In 1969, the first West Indian-American Day Carnival on Eastern Parkway was organized. And since then the Hispanic population kept growing until what it is today: the largest West Indian neighbourhood in the city. The third factor of the demographic transformation

of Crown Heights was the growth of the Lubavitch Jewish community. The opening of the subway in 1920 and the immigration of European and Russian Jews after World War II vastly increased the number of Lubavitch Jews. Racial tension between the Jews and African Americans came to a tragic climax in august 1991 when a Guyanese child was killed by a car driven by an important Lubavitch Rabbi. The following riot lasted three days in which a visiting Australian Jew was killed. Neighbourhood organizations responded to the tensions with community-building ventures like the annual Unity Day. Nevertheless racial tensions were seen again in 2008 when a black man was assaulted by Ludavitch Jews because a Jewish teenager was robbed and beaten by black teenagers the week before. Today, racial tensions have decreased due to frequent meetings between the black and Jewish community leaders but are nonetheless still strongly present in a few blocks. Since 1990, there is a gentrification wave noticeable from Park Slope in the west, through Prospect Heights in the past decade, and nowadays entering North Crown Heights towards its historic districts.

CULTURAL HISTORY | Timeline

1700Leffert

Pieterse

LenapeIndians

512.000 people

128.000

32.000

8.000

2.000

500

1814Fulton Ferry

1827Weeksville &

Carrville

1855Street Grid

1868Eastern Parkway

1883Brooklyn Bridge

1898Consolidation

of NYC

1920Opening Subway

1945White Flight

1965Immigration and Nationality Act

1991Crown

Heights Riots

2008 Increased

Racial Tensions

21

22

Overall, Crown Heights is a black

neighborhood with a gradient of 50%

blacks in the western part to 90% in the

eastern part.

Though Crown Heights is mostly a black

neighborhood, there are some noticeable

differences:

The east of Bedford Avenue, there live

almost 50% whites due to the spreading

gentrification process. In the center of

Crown Heights, south of the Eastern

Parkway, lives a strong concentration of

whites, the Lubavitch Jew community. In

the eastern part of Crown Heights, the

10% non-blacks are generally Hispanic. In

Bushwick, the north-east of the map, the

majority of the people are also Hispanic.

The opening of the subway in 1920 and

the immigration of European and Russian

Jews after World War II increased the

number of Lubavitch Jews. They did not

move out of Crown Heights like other white

people because the cultural gap between

them and their black neighbors was so

wide that there was a small chance that

younger Lubavitchers would absorb values

of the black majority.

Black100 %

Hispanic100 %

White100 %

CULTURAL HISTORY | Ethnic Diversity

White 100%

Black 100%

Hispanic 100%

Mosque

Church

Synagogue

[1] Lubavitch Jew Kids

Transportation

Subway lines

Long Island Railroad

Bike routes

INFRASTRUCTURE

26 | TransportationINFRASTRUCTURE

By car every neighborhood in Brooklyn is

reachable from Crown Heights within thirty

minutes. The second fastest way to get to

other neighborhoods is by bike. By public

transport almost every neighborhood is

reachable within one hour. The slowest

way of transportation is obviously by foot.

Some neighborhoods are even more than

a 90 minutes walking distance away [1].

The streetgrid of Crown Heights is for a

major part defined by different ways of

transportation. The differences in car traffic

intensity, the subway lines, the partially

elevated Long Island Railroad, and the

amount of bus traffic shape the grid.

Time-distance from Crown Heights to other neighborhoods by car/ by bike / by public transport / by foot

5 m

in10

min

20 m

in30

min

60 m

in

90 m

in

[1] Time-distance from Crown Heights to other neighborhoods in Brooklyn

Time-distance from Crown Heights to other neighborhoods by car/ by bike / by public transport / by foot

5 m

in10

min

20 m

in30

min

60 m

in

90 m

in

Subway lines

Elevated Subway lines

Bus linesTraffic Intensity

28

[1] Commercial activity at Nostrand Avenue

[2] Subway station at Kingston Avenue at Eastern Parkway

The development of the commercial

streets in Crown Heights is linked with the

subway stations.

The A and C lines run along Fulton Street,

and the 3 and 4 lines run along Eastern

Parkway. Between the subway stations of

both lines, commercial activity has been

developed over time. So the commercial

streets form connections between the

subway stations.

The bus lines running through Crown

Heights are complementary to the subway

lines. While the subway lines run east-

west, the bus lines mostly run north-south,

along the commercial streets.

Mixed commercial and residential

Commerical | Subway linesINFRASTRUCTURE

Subway lines

Elevated Subway lines

Bus lines

30

[2] The elevated Long Island Railroad along Atlantic Avenue

[1] Atlantic Avenue

The partially elevated Long Island Railroad

runs along Atlantic Avenue from East to

West all the way through Crown Heights.

Small industries like auto repair shops and storage facilities create a buffer between

the noisy train and traffic and the residential

neighborhood surrounding it.

The same is to be noted for the elevated

subway lines, shown on the map.

Elevated subway lines

LIRR

Transporation and UtilityIndustrial and Manufacturing | Long Island RailroadINFRASTRUCTURE

32

[1] Brooklyn-Queens Greenway

The Brooklyn-Queens Greenway is a network of bicycle and pedestrian pathways that connects parks and communities.This network runs from Coney Island in the south of Brooklyn, along Prospect Park and the eastern parkway, all the way up to Fort Totten on the Long Island Sound in Queens [1]. The Greenway holds all sorts of amenities, cultural experiences, and passes parks, botanical gardens, the Brooklyn museum, the New York Hall of Science, and different ethnic and historic neighborhoods. The greenways connecting these aminities are multi-use paths for pedestrians, joggers, cyclists, skaters, and wheelchair users. Greenways are natural and constructed linear corridors, where people walk, stroll, or bike for recreation, exercise, and commuting. In Crown Heights, this greenway is interrupted from Ralph Avenue (the end of the Eastern Parkway) until the Highland Park in Queens. To connect this interruption, Mayor Bloomberg proposed a masterplan for the Eastern Parkway Extension, using the existing bike paths that mostly run from east to west.

Apart from the great Prospect Park, Crown Heights doesnt have a lot of green open spaces. But the few present parks and playgrounds are well spread across the neighborhood.

[3] Prospect Park

Open Space and Outdoor Recreation

Existing Bike Routes

Eastern Parkway | Bike RoutesINFRASTRUCTURE

[2] Logo Greenway at Eastern Parkway

Planned connecting Bike Routes

Northern and Southern Route to

connect the greenway

Residential Land Use

Public Housing

TYPOLOGIES

36 Residential Landuse |

The fairly equally sized blocks of Crown

Height are mainly covered with a residential

use. One is able to note three significant

different morphological strategies. The

first one is a (neo-)traditional development

of row houses, which is surely the

most prominent. The second one is the

Modernist tower-in-the-park approach.

The third one is a rather more suburban

condition of detached units and is only

to be found in a small part of the Jewish

neighborhood.

On a smaller morphological scale, Crown

Heights is a historical collage of the

typical typologies of New York City. The

original tenements for low income people

with its small air shafts originate from the

19th century. Since then they have been

regulated and the poor living conditions

have been improved by several Tenement

Laws. In contrary to the tenement, the

garden apartment was designed for

moderate incomes. The single-family

Brownstone and its similar multi-family

row house developments, also provided

better living conditions. From the 1950s

to the 1970s the slum clearance program

resulted in many towers, looming over the

skyline of Crown Heights.

CROWN HEIGHTS Exploring the grid

TYPOLOGY

TYPOLOGIESOne and two family buildings

Multi-family buildings

[1] [2] [3]

[4] [5] [6]

[1]

[2]

[3][4]

[5]

[6]

38

NYCHA Public Housing

Median Household income 2005-2009:

< $25000

$25000 - $45000

[1] Prospect Plaza towers

The New York City Housing Authority (NYCHA) has been providing public housing since 1934. The slum clearance program boosted the amount of public housing, mostly in the shape of Modernist towers-in-the-park. The map shows the success of the NYCHAs ability to create and maintain housing for the poor. Unfortunately this strategy has led to areas of concentrated poverty, not only attracting crime and violence, but also enlarging the racial segregation in public housing. Like many other Housing Authorities all over the U.S., the NYCHA is suffering from its own success. Today, many federal programs are therefore focusing on the demolition of the problematic towers-in-the-park, often resulting in a displacement of 90% of the former residents. The NYCHA is resisting this national trend towards demolition with a preservation and maintenance policy. Unfortunately, despite the crucial role of the NYCHA, a continuously disinvestment by the government in the NCYHA is resulting in the disrepair of many of its buildings, making the living conditions in these concentrated areas of poverty even worse.

[2] Albany I & II

Public Housing | TYPOLOGIES

Unemployment and Public Safety

Level of Education

Spatial indicators of gentrification

SHIFTING TENDENCIES

42

The median household income is evidently

related to the number of unemployed

inhabitants. Its notable that the

unemployment rate follows a gradient from

very low in eastern part of Crown Heights

near Prospect Heights to very high in the

western part near Brownsville.

According to the New York Times the

number of murders in Crown Heights has

decreased during the last years. The map

shows the location of murders from 2007 to

2011. The murders are clearly following the

same pattern as the unemployment rate.

Therefore the surroundings of Prospect

Heights are a far more safer area than

the area near Brownsville. An interesting

anomaly is the significant absence of

murders in the Jewish neighborhood.

The unemployment rate in the Jewish

neighborhood is also remarkably low. Note

the resemblance of the unemployment

map and the map of the ethnic diversity.

0-10%

...

+ 40%

Unemployment: the percentage unemployed (census 2000)

0 - 10 %

10 - 20 %20 - 30 %

30 - 40 %+40 % murdered by knife

murdered by rearm

C,M,Y,K = 15,22,0,0

C,M,Y,K = 30,45,0,0C,M,Y,K = 60,90,0,20

C,M,Y,K = 60,90,0,40

C,M,Y,K = 60,90,0,60Murdered by firearm

Murdered by knife

Unemployment percentages:

Unemployment and Public Safety | SHIFTING TENDENCIES

[1] Surveillance Cameras

44

The level of education in Crown Heights

is clearly a determining factor for the

unemployment rate, as the percentage

of inhabitants with an educational level

less than High School appears to show a

similar gradient from Prospect Heights to

Brownsville.

When inspecting the physical presence

of schools in the different areas, one is

surprisingly able to conclude that there

is no correlation between the presence

of the 18 High Schools and the level of

education. This seems also to be true

for the 88 Elementary Schools, the 16

Middle Schools and the 13 K-12 Schools.

Although upon looking to the physical

presence of a possible higher educational

program, it is noticeable that the colleges

and universities are only situated in the

west part of Crown Heights.

It can be concluded that the level of

education is not largely influenced by the

physical presence of schools, but rather

by other factors like median household

income or family configuration. One can

for example note that the inhabitants of the

Jewish neighborhood are higher educated

than the surrounding area. Elementary SchoolMiddle School

High School (HS)

K-12 Schools and Junior HS / HS

College / univeristy

5-10%

...

50-60%

Percentage less than High School Degree:

5 - 10 %

Education: the percentage less than High School (census 2000)

10 - 15 %15 - 20 %

20 - 30 %30 - 40 %

40 - 50 %50 - 60 % College / University

K-12 Schools and Junior HS / HS

High School (HS)Middle School

Elementary School

C,M,Y,K = 0,0,0,10

C,M,Y,K = 0,0,0,15C,M,Y,K = 0,0,0,20

C,M,Y,K = 0,0,0,28C,M,Y,K = 0,0,0,38

C,M,Y,K = 0,0,0,48

C,M,Y,K = 0,0,0,60Level of Education | SHIFTING TENDENCIES

[1] School playground

46

Increase with 1 to 20%

Increase with more than 50%

Decrease with 1 to 20%

Decrease with more than 50%

According to an unpublished Kontokosta,

C.E. and CHPC 2009 gentrification

model, Prospect Heights and North

Crown Heights are the most gentrified

neighborhoods in Brooklyn. Crown Heights

has several Historic Districts, which have

a strong attraction to first wave gentrifiers,

and proximity to public transport and to

Manhattan. Moreover the proximity to

gentrified areas like Park Slope accelerates

the gentrification through a spillover

effect. For 1990-2000, four possible spatial

indicators of gentrification in North Crown

Heights and Prospect Heights are the

increase in ownership rate (demographic),

increase in monthly gross rent (economic),

increase in number of inmovers (moving

pattern), and the decrease of vacancy rate

(physical). These indicators result in the

spatial gentrification index, which shows a

gentrification wave from Prospect Heights

going to Crown Heights Historic Districts.

The 2000-2010 difference in population

density shows, besides the gentrified

area near Prospect Heights, also a drastic

increase in population in the area of

Brownsville.

2%

4 %

6 %

8 %

10 %

12 %

$ 250

$ 350

$ 450

$ 550

$ 650

$ 750

6 %

14 %

21 %

28 %

35 %

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

-6

-4

0

4

8

12

PROSPECT HEIGHTS

Washington Av

Bedfort Av

Vanderbilt Av

Ralph Av

Utica Av

CROWN HEIGHTS

OWNERSHIP RATE

MONTLY RENT

INMOVERS

VACANCY RATE

SPACIAL GENTRIFICATION INDEX

2000

1990

Historical Districts

Population Density evolution 2000-2010:

25%

$ 39.270

average household size: 2,58 22% of total households are withfemale householder and related children

median household income

15,6% own his housing unit 31,1% of all families has a vehicle available

25% of the peoplelives below the poverty level

foreign born 32,2%

white 6,8%black 78%

asian 4,8%

hispanic 10,4%

22%

12%

$ 80.072

average household size: 2,33 8,8% of total households are withfemale householder and related children




foreign born 16,4%white 54,8%

black 15,9%asian 3,2%

hispanic 25,6%

8,8%

36%

$ 25.954

average household size: 2,96 34% of total households are withfemale householder and related children




foreign born 27%

white 0,9%black 81%

asian 0,9%

hispanic 17,2%

Park Slope

crown heights

Brownsville

34%

Spatial Indicators of Gentrification | SHIFTING TENDENCIES

Bedf

ord

Aven

ue

Washington Avenue

Utic

a Av

enue

Ral

ph A

venu

e

Roc

kaw

ay A

venu

e

Nos

trand

Ave

nue

Vand

erbi

lt Av

enue

REFERENCES

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GOLDSCHMIDT, Henry, Race and Religion Among the Chosen People of Crown Heights, Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, New Jersey, 2006. KELLY, Wilhelmena, Images of America: Crown Heights and Weeksville, Arcadia Publishing, Ports- mouth, San Franscisco, 2009.

SHAPIRO, Edward, Crown Heights, Blacks, Jews, and the 1991 Brooklyn Riot, Brandeis University Press, Waltham, Massachusetts, 2006.

GROSSMAN, Elizabeth, MECHIK, Leonid, YUCE, Veysel, A History of Tension: Race Relations in Crown Heights, 2012, http://www.humanityinaction.org/knowledgebase/80-a-history-of-tension-race- relations-in-crown-heights, last visited: 12/04/12.

RULE, Sheila, The Voices and Faces of Crown Heights, 1994, http://www.nytimes.com/1994/04/15/ arts/the-voices-and-faces-of-crown-heights.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm, last visited: 12/04/12.

UNKNOWN, Crown Heights North, http://www.crownheightsnorth.com/history2.html, last visited: 12/04/12.

WALLABOUT HISTORIC DISTRICT, Designation Report, 2011, http://www.nyc.gov/html/lpc/down loads/pdf/reports/wallabout.pdf, last visited: 12/04/12.

NEW YORK STATE LOCAL HISTORY LEAFLETS, Bedfort Corners, Brooklyn, 1917, http://www. archive.org/stream/bedfordcornersbr00univ#page/n7/mode/2up, last visited: 12/04/11.

NYCLPC, Landmark Designation Report, 1986, http://www.flickr.com/photos/emilio_guer ra/5473377527/, last visited: 12/04/12.

[Image P14] STILES, Bedford corners in 1776, 1867, van NEW YORK STATE LOCAL HISTORY LEAFLETS, Bedfort Corners, Brooklyn, 1917, http://www.archive.org/stream/bedfordcornersbr00univ#page/n7/ mode/2up, last visited: 12/04/11.

P15 BACH, A. D.; HASSLER, F. R., New York Bay Harbor, from the David Rumsey Historical Map Collection, 1845, http://www.davidrumsey.com/, last visited: 12/04/12.

P16 GOLDSCHMIDT, Henry, Race and Religion Among the Chosen People of Crown Heights, Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, New Jersey, 2006.

KELLY, Wilhelmena, Images of America: Crown Heights and Weeksville, Arcadia Publishing, Ports- mouth, San Franscisco, 2009.

SHAPIRO, Edward, Crown Heights, Blacks, Jews, and the 1991 Brooklyn Riot, Brandeis University Press, Waltham, Massachusetts, 2006. NYC Bicyce Master Plan, The Greenway System, 2003, http://www.nyc.gov/html/dcp/pdf/bike/green sys.pdf, last visited: 12/04/12.

relations-in-crown-heights, last visited: 12/04/12.






[Image P16] STILES, Map of Bedford Corners in 1776-77 and 1916, 1916, van NEW YORK STATE LOCAL HISTORY LEAFLETS, Bedfort Corners, Brooklyn, 1917, http://www.archive.org/stream/ bedfordcornersbr00univ#page/n7/mode/2up, last visited: 12/04/11.

P17 Bien, Joseph Rudolf; The Narrows to Jamaica Bay-Coney Island, north to Brooklyn from the David Rumsey Historical Map Collection, 1890, http://www.davidrumsey.com/, last visited: 12/04/12.










P23 THE U.S. CENSUS BUREAU, t_pl_p3a_ct.xlsx, 2011, http://www.nyc.gov/html/dcp/download/ censuscensus2010/t_pl_p3a_ct.xlsx, last visited: 05/04/2012.

UNKNOWN, Map Churches Crown Heights, 2012, http://maps.google.be/maps, last visited 12/04/12.

References Land Use, see P29 - Public Institutions.

P26 GOOGLE MAPS - Directions, Brooklyn, NYC, http://www.google.be/maps, last visited 12/04/12.

P27 METROPOLITAN TRANSPORTATION AUTHORITY, Brooklyn Bus Map, 2011, http://www.mta.info/ nyct/maps/busbkln.pdf, last visited: 23/11/2011.

METROPOLITAN TRANSPORTATION AUTHORITY, New York City Subway, with railroad connections,2011, http://www.mta.info/nyct/maps/subwaymap.pdf, last visited: 10/11/2011.

P29 New York City Department of City Planning, Brooklyn CD 2, 2011, http://www.nyc.gov/html/dcp/pdf/ lucds/bk2profile.pdf, last visited: 05/04/2012.

New York City Department of City Planning, Brooklyn CD 3, 2011, http://www.nyc.gov/html/dcp/pdf/ lucds/bk3profile.pdf, last visited: 05/04/2012.




New York City Department of City Planning, Brooklyn CD 16, 2011, http://www.nyc.gov/html/dcp/ pdf/lucds/bk16profile.pdf, last visited: 05/04/2012.


P31 References Land Use, see P29 - Industrial Land Use.

METROPOLITAN TRANSPORTATION AUTHORITY, New York City Subway, with railroad connections,2011, http://www.mta.info/nyct/maps/subwaymap.pdf, last visited: 10/11/2011.

P32 CITY OF NEW YORK PARKS & RECREATION, Brooklyn-Queens Greenway Guide, 2007, http://www.nycgovparks.org/sub_things_to_do/facilities/images/Brooklyn_Queens_GreenwayGuide. pdf, last visited: 12/04/12.

NYC Bicyce Master Plan, The Greenway System, 2003, http://www.nyc.gov/html/dcp/pdf/bike/green sys.pdf, last visited: 12/04/12.

P33 NYC Department of City Planning, The Brooklyn-Queens Greenway, Eastern Parkway Extension , 2006, http://www.nyc.gov/html/dcp/html/transportation/td_eastern_pkwy_extention.

shtml, last visited: 12/04/12.










P21 WRIGHT, Henry, Fulton Ferry, New York, 1890, http://www.postaprint.co.uk/ilnimages/i901343.jpg, last visited 12/04/12.

STILES, Edward, Town of Brooklyn and Part of Long Island, 1867, http://www.geographicus-archive.com/P/AntiqueMap/BrooklynTwn-stiles-1867, last visited 12/04/12.

SCHUSZLER, Alajos, Shoe Shine, Eastern Parkway, 1938, http://www.nycgovparks.org/photo/ archivesthe_african_american_experience/photo-15292-Shoe-Shine#more_text, last visited 12/04/12.

ILLMAN, Thomas, Twenty Five Miles Round The City Of New York, 1835, http://www.davidrumsey. com/luna/servlet/detail/RUMSEY~8~1~3302~400119:Map-of-the-Country-Twenty-Five-Mile, last visited 12/04/12.

UNKNOWN, Aerial view of Levittown, 1959, http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/64/ LevittownPA.jpg, last visited 12/04/12.

OKAMOTO, Yoichi, President Johnson signing the 1965 Immigration Act, 1965, http://www.new america.umd.edu/themes.html, last visited 12/04/12.

UNKNOWN, Crown Heights Riots 1991, 1991, http://www.crownheights.info/index.php?itemid=366, last visited 12/04/12.

UNKNOWN, Crown Heights Protest, 2008, https://picasaweb.google.com/VosIzNeias.Com/Crown HeightsProtes5162008#5201526732365990162, last visited 12/04/12.

References Land Use, see P29 - Open space and recreation. GROSSMAN, Elizabeth, MECHIK, Leonid, YUCE, Veysel, A History of Tension: Race Relations in Crown Heights, 2012, http://www.humanityinaction.org/knowledgebase/80-a-history-of-tension-race- NYC DEPARTMENT OF CITY PLANNING AND TRANSPORTATION, NYC Cycling Map, 2011, http://www.nyc.gov/html/dot/downloads/pdf/2012_nyc-cycling-map.pdf, last visited: 23/11/2011.

P37 References Land Use, see P27 - Residential Land Use.

PLUNZ, Richard, A History of Housing in New York City, Columbia University Press, New York, 1992.

BING MAPS, Birds eye, 2012, http://be.bing.com/maps/, last visited: 12/04/2012.

P39 SORKIN, Michael, All Over The Map, Verso, New York, 2011.

DODGE, David, An Overview of New York Public Housing - Submitted by the Right to the City Alliance to Marguerite Casey Foundation, September 2009, http://www.cdp-ny.org/report/NYpublic housing_sept09.pdf, last visited: 12/04/2012.

PRATT CENTER FOR COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT, Building communities of opportunity, 2009, http://prattcenter.net/sites/default/files/publications/PrattCenterPublicHousing.pdf, p13, last visited: 04/04/2012.

NEW YORK CITY HOUSING AUTHORITY, NYCHA Housing Developments, 2012, http://www.nyc. gov/htmlnycha/html/developments/dev_guide.shtml, last visited: 12/04/2012.

NYC OASIS, Median Household Income (2005-09), http://www.oasisnyc.net/map.aspx, last visited: 12/04/2012.

P43 NEW YORK TIMES, Murder: New York City, http://projects.nytimes.com/crime/homicides/map, last visited: 13/04/2012.

SOCIAL EXPLORER, 2000 Census Tract - % Unemployed, http://www.socialexplorer.com, last visited: 13/04/2012.

P45 SOCIAL EXPLORER, 2000 Census Tract - % Less than High School, http://www.socialexplorer. com, last visited: 13/04/2012.

References Land Use, see P29 - Public Institutions.

P46 HESSE, Hannah, Gentrification - Chance & Rick for a New York City neighborhood - A case study of North Crown Heights | Prospect Heights, 2009, http://hannah-hesse.com/Urban%20Planning/ thesis_excerpt.pdf, last visited: 12/04/2012, used with written permission.

THE U.S. CENSUS BUREAU, t_pl_p1_ct.xlsx, 2011, http://www.nyc.gov/html/dcp/download/census/ census2010/t_pl_p1_ct.xlsx, last visited: 05/04/2012.

Juravich, Nick, Crown Heights, Riots, Gentrification: Some Fresh Takes on the Usual Topics, 2001, http://ilovefranklinave.blogspot.com/2011/10/crown-heights-riots-gentrification-some.html, last visited: 12/04/12.

Juravich, Nick, Two Years of Commercial Development on Franklin, 2010, http://ilovefranklinave. blogspot.com/2010/11/two-years-of-commercial-development-on.html, last visited: 12/04/12.

The Citizen Housing and Planning Council (CHPC), Kontokosta, C.E. and CHPC 2009 gentrificationmodel, http://www.chpcny.org/, last visited: 12/04/12.




P47 UNKNOWN, Historic Districts Council Brooklyn, 2012, http://hdc.org/hdc-across-nyc/brooklyn, last visited: 12/04/12.

THE U.S. CENSUS BUREAU, t_pl_p1_ct.xlsx, 2011, http://www.nyc.gov/html/ dcp/download/ census/ census2010/t_pl_p1_ct.xlsx, last visited: 05/04/2012.

Crown Heights - Exploring the grid

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Transcript of Crown Heights - Exploring the grid