Cross-cultural Tolerance and Intolerance in

Mongolia:An Exploration Based on Analyses of Survey Data

Kunio MinatoRitsumeikan University (Kyoto, Japan), Ph.D.

The 2nd International Research Conference“New Trends in Mongol Studies II”

Introduction• Mongolia has witnessed the rise of ultra-

nationalists that advocate exclusivism since mid-2000s• The problem is whether their claim gains

popularity• Some argue that those groups don’t represent

majority of the Mongolians• Others point out that prejudice to foreign people

or resentment toward China is not uncommon• However, neither kind of arguments lack

empirical grounding2

Research Questions(1) Do the ordinary Mongolians show tolerant /

intolerant attitude toward people with different culture more than with other groups of people?

(2) Do the ordinary Mongolians, compared to other former socialist countries, show tolerant / intolerant attitude toward people with different culture?

(3) What factors relate to tolerant / intolerant attitude toward people with different culture? 3

Data• Life in Transition Survey II (LiTSII) will be used for

analyses• LiTSII is the second survey designed and

conducted by the European Bank of Resurrection and Development• The survey was conducted in former socialist

countries (except Turkmenistan) and some other European countries in 2010• Respondents in Mongolia are 1,000 people aged

18 or over, selected through multi-stage random sampling method

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Questions in Focus (q3.17)“To what extent do you agree with the following statements?”

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StronglyDisagree

Disagree

Neither

Agree

StronglyAgree

NotApplicable

DK

a. People from other ethnic groups are enriching the cultural life of our country

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

b. The presence of people from other ethnic groups is a cause of insecurity

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

c. The presence of people from other ethnic groups increases unemployment

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Questions in Focus (q3.33)“On this list are various groups of people. Could you please mention any that you would not like to have as neighbors? Please just read out the letter that applies.” (Multiple answers)

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a. Families with children i. Gypsiesb. Pedophiles j. People of a different religionc. Drug addicts k. Poor people d. People of a different race l. Heavy drinkerse. People who have AIDS m. Unmarried couples living together f. Elderly people n. Jewish peopleg. Immigrants / Foreign workers o. People who speak a different

languageh. Homosexuals p. Other (specify: )

• The four items in red are in focus

Result (q3.17)

7• Majority of the Mongolians hold negative attitude toward people from different ethnic groups

Result (q3.33)

8• “Selected” in the four items on different culture does not

gain a majority, but is higher than many other items

Cross-national Comparison

• Result in Mongolia will be compared with other former socialist countries• For the sake of simplicity, response categories

“Strongly agree” and “Agree” is put together into “Yes”• Similarly, the categories “Strongly disagree” and

“Disagree” is merged into “No”

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Comparison (q3.17a)

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People from other ethnic groups are enriching the cultural life of our country　 　 Yes Neither No 　 　 Yes Neither No

1Estonia (961) 63.9% 22.8% 13.3% 16Lithuania (907) 39.6% 34.3% 26.1%2Kazakhstan (886) 63.7% 24.7% 11.6% 17Ukraine (1386) 38.5% 32.2% 29.3%3Tajikistan (853) 63.2% 14.3% 22.5% 18Slovakia (907) 37.5% 37.7% 24.8%4Croatia (950) 60.1% 29.7% 10.2% 19Hungary (991) 37.4% 30.9% 31.7%5Latvia (938) 57.4% 21.3% 21.3% 20Bosnia-Herzegovina (1016) 36.2% 40.7% 23.0%6Serbia (1453) 51.8% 32.3% 15.9% 21Russia (1394) 36.1% 24.0% 39.9%7Moldova (791) 50.7% 25.2% 24.1% 22Georgia (832) 35.7% 22.5% 41.8%8Uzbekistan (1024) 49.8% 25.4% 24.8% 23Kosovo (953) 33.4% 33.2% 33.5%9Romania (847) 47.3% 29.4% 23.3% 24Albania (932) 32.0% 38.5% 29.5%

10Poland (1486) 47.1% 36.1% 16.8% 25Azerbaijan (822) 31.1% 22.7% 46.1%11Macedonia (1,029) 47.0% 30.3% 22.6% 26Bulgaria (890) 30.8% 34.7% 34.5%12Belarus (791) 46.8% 31.0% 22.3% 27Armenia (762) 25.7% 20.7% 53.5%13Slovenia (930) 46.2% 30.5% 23.2% 28Mongolia (784) 25.6% 18.5% 55.9%14Montenegro (880) 46.0% 38.2% 15.8% 29Czech Republic (980) 20.1% 36.8% 43.1%15Kyrgyzstan (920) 45.0% 16.2% 38.8% Total (28295) 43.1% 29.2% 27.7%

Note: Countries are listed in order of the percentage of “Yes”. Figure in the parentheses show the number of respondents.

Comparison (q3.17b)

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The presence of people from other ethnic groups is a cause of insecurity　 　 Yes Neither No 　 　 Yes Neither No

1Mongolia (814) 69.0% 12.8% 18.2% 16Kyrgyzstan (897) 28.1% 23.7% 48.2%2Czech Republic (988) 53.1% 25.6% 21.3% 17Romania (842) 28.0% 34.1% 37.9%3Russia (1424) 51.8% 22.8% 25.4% 18Armenia (743) 27.5% 24.4% 48.2%4Hungary (992) 44.1% 32.4% 23.6% 19Poland (1487) 26.8% 40.4% 32.8%5Bulgaria (889) 38.8% 32.8% 28.3% 20Kazakhstan (873) 26.6% 29.7% 43.8%6Georgia (831) 37.5% 31.8% 30.7% 21Slovenia (925) 25.1% 33.2% 41.7%7Estonia (951) 33.5% 26.6% 39.9% 22Lithuania (901) 23.6% 39.2% 37.2%8Macedonia (1042) 33.1% 32.7% 34.2% 23Belarus (779) 23.2% 38.6% 38.1%9Kosovo (971) 32.3% 37.8% 29.9% 24Moldova (731) 20.9% 35.2% 43.9%

10Latvia (890) 31.0% 25.3% 43.7% 25Croatia (942) 19.4% 32.3% 48.3%11Tajikistan (808) 30.3% 18.9% 50.7% 26Serbia (1452) 18.9% 32.9% 48.3%12Slovakia (906) 30.2% 45.7% 24.1% 27Albania (923) 15.9% 44.0% 40.1%13Azerbaijan (809) 29.9% 27.1% 43.0% 28Bosnia-Herzegovina (1011) 15.7% 43.1% 41.1%14Ukraine (1412) 29.5% 37.8% 32.7% 29Montenegro (862) 12.5% 47.1% 40.4%15Uzbekistan (974) 29.4% 31.6% 39.0% Total (34379) 32.2% 31.7% 36.1%

Note: Countries are listed in order of the percentage of “Yes”. Figure in the parentheses show the number of respondents.

Comparison (q3.17c)

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The presence of people from other ethnic groups increases unemployment　 　 Yes Neither No 　 　 Yes Neither No

1Mongolia (842) 75.7% 15.0% 9.4% 16Slovenia (934) 36.0% 28.8% 35.2%2Czech Republic (986) 64.0% 24.7% 11.3% 17Poland (1494) 34.9% 36.5% 28.6%3Russia (1443) 60.1% 21.1% 18.8% 18Armenia (730) 30.7% 21.5% 47.8%4Hungary (994) 57.8% 25.9% 16.3% 19Romania (839) 30.6% 31.1% 38.3%5Georgia (860) 48.7% 24.4% 26.9% 20Belarus (795) 30.6% 36.7% 32.7%6Azerbaijan (809) 47.7% 16.7% 35.6% 21Tajikistan (782) 28.9% 22.5% 48.6%7Latvia (900) 46.0% 21.6% 32.4% 22Croatia (941) 28.7% 34.0% 37.3%8Bulgaria (879) 44.0% 30.7% 25.3% 23Uzbekistan (970) 28.2% 32.0% 39.8%9Kosovo (966) 43.7% 36.5% 19.8% 24Serbia (1447) 27.9% 32.9% 39.3%

10Estonia (927) 43.1% 21.5% 35.4% 25Kyrgyzstan (897) 25.9% 23.2% 50.9%11Ukraine (1406) 42.5% 31.5% 26.0% 26Montenegro (868) 24.7% 43.2% 32.1%12Macedonia (1037) 39.8% 27.4% 32.8% 27Moldova (719) 21.3% 29.3% 49.4%13Slovakia (892) 39.3% 42.7% 17.9% 28Albania (918) 19.3% 42.0% 38.7%14Kazakhstan (871) 39.0% 29.6% 31.3% 29Bosnia-Herzegovina (1010) 18.3% 40.6% 41.1%15Lithuania (899) 38.4% 33.1% 28.5% Total (34338) 39.1% 29.1% 31.8%

Note: Countries are listed in order of the percentage of “Yes”. Figure in the parentheses show the number of respondents.

Comparison (q3.33d)

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People of a different race Selected Not Selected Өөр өнгөтэй арьстан Selected Not

Selected1Armenia (1000) 32.3 67.7 16Georgia (999) 13.3 86.7 2Moldova (1043) 31.5 68.5 17Albania (1055) 12.7 87.3 3Azerbaijan (1002) 27.2 72.9 18Uzbekistan (1498) 12.6 87.4 4Czech Republic (1007) 23.7 76.3 19Slovakia (1009) 10.5 89.5 5Mongolia (1000) 23.6 76.4 20Slovenia (994) 10.3 89.7 6Tajikistan (1007) 21.5 78.6 21Bosnia-Herzegovina (1084) 10.2 89.8 7Kyrgyzstan (1014) 19.8 80.2 22Poland (1608) 9.7 90.3 8Macedonia (1072) 19.7 80.3 23Montenegro (1010) 8.7 91.3 9Hungary (1040) 19.4 80.6 24Estonia (1001) 8.5 91.5

10Kosovo (1091) 17.4 82.6 25Kazakhstan (999) 8.1 91.9 11Lithuania (1010) 16.5 83.5 26Latvia (985) 7.8 92.2 12Russia (1581) 15.3 84.7 27Romania (1065) 7.8 92.2 13Belarus (1000) 14.4 85.6 28Serbia (1510) 7.6 92.4 14Bulgaria (1006) 14.3 85.7 29Croatia (1000) 6.4 93.6 15Ukraine (1553) 13.7 86.4 Total (32243) 15.1 85.0

Note: Countries are listed in order of the percentage of “Selected”. Figure in the parentheses show the number of respondents.

Comparison (q3.33g)

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Immigrants / foreign workers Selected Not Selected Цагаач / гадаадын ажилчид Selected Not

Selected1Mongolia (1000) 31.3 68.7 16Lithuania (1010) 14.9 85.2 2Russia (1581) 28.8 71.2 17Kyrgyzstan (1014) 14.5 85.5 3Czech Republic (1007) 27.4 72.6 18Armenia (1000) 12.2 87.8 4Moldova (1043) 24.3 75.7 19Slovakia (1009) 11.8 88.2 5Hungary (1040) 24.0 76.0 20Montenegro (1010) 10.6 89.4 6Estonia (1001) 23.6 76.4 21Tajikistan (1007) 10.5 89.5 7Belarus (1000) 21.6 78.4 22Bulgaria (1006) 10.4 89.6 8Kazakhstan (999) 20.8 79.2 23Romania (1065) 9.3 90.7 9Macedonia (1072) 20.0 80.0 24Serbia (1510) 8.8 91.2

10Uzbekistan (1498) 18.4 81.6 25Poland (1608) 8.3 91.7 11Ukraine (1553) 17.9 82.1 26Georgia (999) 8.1 91.9 12Slovenia (994) 17.7 82.3 27Bosnia-Herzegovina (1084) 7.8 92.3 13Latvia (985) 17.4 82.6 28Croatia (1000) 7.3 92.7 14Azerbaijan (1002) 17.0 83.0 29Albania (1055) 4.4 95.6 15Kosovo (1091) 16.0 84.1 Total (32243) 16.3 84.0

Note: Countries are listed in order of the percentage of “Yes”. Figure in the parentheses show the number of respondents.

Comparison (q3.33j)

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People of a different religion Selected Not Selected Өөр шашинтан Selected Not

Selected1Moldova (1043) 30.6 69.4 16Bosnia-Herzegovina (1084) 7.4 92.6 2Armenia (1000) 27.8 72.2 17Bulgaria (1006) 7.1 92.9 3Tajikistan (1007) 26.3 73.7 18Kazakhstan (999) 6.9 93.1 4Azerbaijan (1002) 24.3 75.8 19Slovenia (994) 6.3 93.7 5Kyrgyzstan (1014) 22.7 77.3 20Poland (1608) 5.7 94.3 6Mongolia (1000) 17.6 82.4 21Serbia (1510) 5.3 94.7 7Georgia (999) 13.2 86.8 22Hungary (1040) 5.1 94.9 8Kosovo (1091) 12.6 87.4 23Romania (1065) 5.0 95.0 9Lithuania (1010) 11.9 88.1 24Estonia (1001) 4.5 95.5

10Czech Republic (1007) 10.8 89.2 25Albania (1055) 4.4 95.6 11Macedonia (1072) 10.1 89.9 26Montenegro (1010) 3.6 96.4 12Russia (1581) 9.6 90.5 27Latvia (985) 3.6 96.5 13Ukraine (1553) 9.3 90.7 28Slovakia (1009) 2.9 97.1 14Belarus (1000) 8.5 91.5 29Croatia (1000) 2.4 97.6 15Uzbekistan (1498) 8.5 91.5 Total (32243) 10.5 89.5

Note: Countries are listed in order of the percentage of “Yes”. Figure in the parentheses show the number of respondents.

Comparison (q3.33o)

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People who speak a different language Selected Not

Selected Өөр хэлээр ярьдаг хүмүүс Selected Not Selected

1Moldova (1043) 22.7 77.3 16Romania (1065) 5.1 94.9 2Mongolia (1000) 17.5 82.5 17Montenegro (1010) 5.1 95.0 3Kosovo (1091) 13.4 86.6 18Bosnia-Herzegovina (1084) 4.4 95.6 4Kyrgyzstan (1014) 12.7 87.3 19Georgia (999) 4.4 95.6 5Russia (1581) 11.1 88.9 20Serbia (1510) 3.8 96.2 6Czech Republic (1007) 9.2 90.8 21Azerbaijan (1002) 3.4 96.6 7Ukraine (1553) 8.8 91.2 22Bulgaria (1006) 3.4 96.6 8Tajikistan (1007) 8.7 91.3 23Slovakia (1009) 3.4 96.6 9Uzbekistan (1498) 8.7 91.3 24Estonia (1001) 3.3 96.7

10Armenia (1000) 8.3 91.7 25Albania (1055) 2.8 97.3 11Belarus (1000) 8.1 91.9 26Kazakhstan (999) 2.4 97.6 12Macedonia (1072) 6.0 94.0 27Lithuania (1010) 2.3 97.7 13Slovenia (994) 5.6 94.4 28Croatia (1000) 2.0 98.0 14Hungary (1040) 5.3 94.7 29Latvia (985) 0.9 99.1 15Poland (1608) 5.2 94.8 Total (32243) 6.9 93.1

Note: Countries are listed in order of the percentage of “Yes”. Figure in the parentheses show the number of respondents.

The Result Shows …

• Negative attitude toward people from different ethnic group is more common in Mongolia than other former socialist countries• The percentage of people who selected the

groups of people with different culture is relatively high (or the highest) in Mongolia

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MCA•MCA stands for multiple correspondence

analysis•MCA is a method of multivariate analysis

to examine relationship among categorical variables• The result is presented as a 2-dimentional

scatter chart• Distance between two points shows the

relationship of the categories 18

Single-Country Analysis

19Note: IFWs stands for “Immigrants/Foreign workers.”

• “OK”-s of q3.33 are very close• Factors

relating to exclusive attitude (q3.33) are hard to find

Cross-National Analysis

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• Mongolia is close to all the negative categories• Mongolia

almost overlaps with “IFWs”

Conclusion• A majority of the Mongolians are tolerant to

people with different culture• However, the level of tolerance is relatively low in

Mongolia• Factors relating to (in-)tolerance is not clear• Further research is required to find factors relating

to the Mongolian attitude toward different culture

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Анхаарал хандуулсантанд баярлалаа!

Acknowledgement: This work was supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number 25870905. The presentation of this paper at this conference was supported by the Overseas Travel Support Program for Researchers at Ritsumeikan University. I appreciate the EBRD for providing the Mongolian version of the questionnaire.