Crisis of the Ottoman Empire and global consequences

The world in the history of international relations

By its very birth history of international relations is a discipline deeply rooted on European notions of politics, diplomacy, statehood and institutions [i.e. Westphalian order, Vienna system..]

Conventionally, the history of international relations analyses political processes by putting Europe and the West at the centre and relegating the other actors to subaltern or subsidiary roles

The world in the history of international relations

Without rejecting the relevance of the discipline, it is crucial to redefine its boundaries

On one side it is crucial to accommodate different notions of international relations

On the other side we need to have a better understanding of the active role played by non-Western actors in the contemporary system of international relations

International Relations between Westphalian system and Concert of Europe

Westphalian system:

The Peace of Westphalia was a series of peace treaties signed between May and October 1648 to bring an end to the carnage of both: the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) in the Holy Roman

Empire, and the Eighty Years' War (1568–1648) between Spain and the

Dutch Republic, with Spain formally recognizing the independence of the Dutch Republic (1581-1795)

The Thirty Years' War

International Relations between Westphalian system and Concert of EuropeThese treaties did not restore peace throughout Europe,

but they they are conventionally credited for having paved the ground for national self-determination

Conventionally, as corner stones of the Westphalian system are identified the following:

The principle of state sovereignty;

The principle of (legal) equality of states;

The principle of non-intervention of one state in the international affairs of another

The Westphalian system:Myth or Reality

Many scholars of International Relations are sceptical about the historical foundation of the so-called Westphalian system

In particular revisionist scholars define the accepted narrative about Westphalia as a “myth” because:nowhere do the treaties mention the word ‘sovereignty’

hierarchy was the dominant motif in the international system emerged from the treaties

the treaties actually included a number of provisions that restricted each ruler’s domestic authority by an external actor (the Emperor)

International Relations between Westphalian system and Concert of Europe

The Concert of Europe (also known as Vienna system of international relations), represented the balance of power that existed in Europe from the end of the Napoleonic Wars (1815) to the outbreak of World War I (1914).

Concert of Europe

International Relations between Westphalian system and Concert of EuropeThe Concert of Europe was established by Austria,

Prussia, the Russian Empire and the United Kingdom, who were the members of the Quadruple Alliance which defeated Napoleon and his First French Empire in 1815

International Relations between Westphalian system and Concert of EuropeThe Concert of Europe was formulated in 1815 as a

mechanism to enforce the decisions of the Congress of Vienna.

It was promoted by the Quadruple Alliance:

Russia, Prussia, Austria, and Great Britain,

its main priorities were: to establish a balance of power, thereby preserving the

territorial status quo, and

to protect "legitimate" governments from revolutionary and nationalist uprising

International Relations between Westphalian system and Concert of Europe

Aims of the Concert of Europe were to:Contain France after decades of war

Achieve a balance of power between Europe's great powers

Uphold the territorial arrangements made at the Congress of Vienna in 1814-1815

Prevent the rise of another figure such as Napoleon

Avoid the outbreak of another continent wide war

International Relations between Westphalian system and Concert of EuropeMain strength and weakness of this system were:

the crucial role of the founding states

The intensive use of secret diplomacy

International Relations between Westphalian system and Concert of EuropeChallenges to this system were:

Internal uprising asking for constitutional rule

The rise of nationalism

The so-called Eastern question

The Treaty of Hünkâr İskelesi (July 8, 1833) that gave Russia an advantageous access to the straits between Bosporus and Dardanelles

The Crimean War (October 1853 – February 1856)

Treaty of Hünkâr İskelesi

The Crimean War (October 1853 – February 1856)

The Ottoman Empire and its

Impact on International Relations

The crisis of the Ottoman Empire

A major factor in the reorganisation of international relations in the 19th C was the crisis of the Ottoman Empire

This crisis redefined the political boundaries of Europe, Northern Africa and the Middle East

Affected the future relations between Europe and the Arab World

Marked significantly the contemporary Muslim political imaginary

Reasons behind the crisis of the Ottoman Empire

The challenges raised by modernisation were:

Multiculturalism e multi-ethnicity

The rise of nationalism

Timeline

1299–1453 First steps

1453 conquest of Constantinople (Istanbul)

1453–1683 years of territorial

1683 Battle of Vienna

1683–1827 stagnation years

1828–1908 Crisis

1908–1922 dissolution

Population estimate

- 1856 > 35,350,000* - 1906 > 20,884,000* - 1914 > 18,520,000* - 1919 > 14,629,000*

Multiculturalism and multiethnicity

Dar al-Islam vs dar al-harb The issue of dhimmi in the Islamic tradition It was meant to solve the issue on the role of Christians

and Jews in the political and economic life The millet (from the Arabic millah (م�لة) was developed as

a balance system to accommodate internal ethno-religious diversity (Armenian, Kurds, Jews, Catholics, Protestants.)

Originally it referred to the separate legal courts pertaining to "personal law" under which communities ruled themselves in cases not involving Muslims

The Debate on Modernisation in the Ottoman Empire

The Battle of Vienna (1683) ignited an intense debate on how to reaffirm Ottoman hegemony

The two main positions were:

- conservative (suggesting the return to the kanuns of Suleiman the Magnificent)

- modernist (supporting the idea of introducing European technology to reform: army, public administration and education)

The challenges of modernisation Nizam i jedid (18th C) tanzimat (1839-1876)

- reform of the education system- reform of the army- reform of the status of dhimmi

Modernisation or Westernisation?- the rise of the Young Ottomans

The rise of nationalism- The Young Turks- Arab Nationalism

Nizam–i jedid (Selim III, 1789-1807)

Introduced structural reforms which led to: A modern army Increase of taxation Opening of technical schools to train the new cadres

This caused a major a revolt of the 'Ulama, concluded with the deposition of Selim III in 1807

TANZIMAT (reorganisation)

Russian expansion in the Caucasus and the rise of Muhammad Ali in Egypt ignited a new and more intense debate on reforms

Aim of these reforms was to assert, again, the absolute authority of the Ottoman power

Tanzimat (1839-1876)

The tanzimat aimed at introducing reforms in:

- economics

- administration

- legal system

- education

- religion

Production

Emphasis was put on the development of a modern manufacturing system (textile, paper

production, weapons)

mining sector (coal, iron, led, copper)

agriculture through the displacement of populations and land redistribution

Public administration

1834: new and modern mail system

1855 telegraph lines

1866 steam boats and railways

1838: and of state monopoles and reduction of customs duty

Legal system

1840: new legal codes inspired to the Western tradition were added to the Shari’a system

1858: private ownership of the land was introduced

1870: introduction of the Mejelleh that defined and limited duties and rights of Sultan's authority

Education

Elementary and secondary schools were added to vocational schools

1847 the Ministry of education introduced schools that didn't follow religious curricula

1870 opening of universities which were to integrate humanities, technical and religious studies

Religion Hatt-i Sherif (1839) the right of all religious

communities to life, private ownership and honour Hatt-i Humayum (1856) established the right of

non-Muslim to be recruited in the army The Tanzimat introduced a new notion of millet

Millet were now referred to the rights of legally protected religious minorities

Starting from 1850 millets were organised on secular basis

The impact of reforms

Little impact on the population Significant impact on the elites Hegemony of western educated elites Stalemate of the middle class Alliance of those excluded from the social upgrade

Young Ottomans (1860- 1890) Turkish nationalist group formed in Istanbul in June 1865 They believed on modernisation but they criticised the

Tanzimat They endorsed a constitutional system based on Islamic

values and western technology They asked for a deeper rooting of the Ottoman rule among

the population They suggested the reform of the language to make

Ottoman Turkish more understandable to the people 1876 they organised the coup d'état that introduced the

constitution

Young Turks

They declared their loyalty to the Ottoman dynasty

However, they introduced the idea of a strong and highly centralised regime associated to a strong Turkish identity

Young Turks 1905: Mustafa Kemal (Atatürk) founded the Society

for the Fatherland 1907 Committee for Unity and Progress (CUP) 1908 CUP forced the Sultan to re-establish the 1876

constitution The CUP was overtaken by the military which

introduced a secular approach to politics Between 1908 e 1918 Ottoman identity was

replaced by Turkish identity

Islamic modernism: origins

Main factors behind its development were:

The contradictions introduced by the great growth and transformation experienced by the European societies

The contradictions introduced by Ottoman reforms The debate between Young Ottomans and Young

Turks

Toward a Modernised Islam Politically was represented by the Young Ottomans It is the doctrine of the political elites and Islamic

intelligentsia It explained the crisis of Ottoman and Islamic hegemony

as the result of it missed technological and administrative development)

It suggested to abandon the traditional understanding of religion introducing a new model of Islam

keywords: rationalism, ethical activism, patriotism Islamic identity tended to be confined to the background

Islam & nationalism

The debate ignited by Islamic modernism paved the way to the rise of:

Turkish nationalism Arab Nationalism

Islamic Reformism

It expressed the point view of enlightened ulamas, and the alliance among merchants, tribal forces and artisans

It opposed Western penetration in all its forms as well as modernised elites

Islamic Reformism It suggests that a reformed Islam should be the

starting point for a project of Muslim renaissance Muslim identity shouldn't be a blurred background

but rather the cornerstone for the birth of a new umma

Cradle of this new vision has been Muhammad Ali's Egypt

Egypt as a laboratory

Under the leadership of Muhammad Ali (Mehmet Ali) Egypt has experienced:

a radical transformation of its social and economic fabric

Concentration of land ownership into the hands of few landlords

Expulsion of peasants from their land and their transformation in waged labour

Dismantlement of the village economy

Egypt as a laboratory Financial and commercial penetration of

western companies Huge debt due to infrastructural investments globalisation of economic exchanges (cotton) Political and social marginalisation of middle

class, ‘ulama and craftsmen

Jamāl al-Dīn al-Afghānī (1839-1897)

Jamāl al-Dīn al-Afghānī (1839-1897)

He affirms: the need to resist Western penetration the role of a reformed Islam as cornerstone for a new

Renaissance the need to reform corrupted Muslim societies the idea that Islam is a religion of rationality and free

thought that Islam can be the basis for technological and

scientific development

Muḥammad 'Abduh

Muḥammad 'Abduh (1849-1905)

He also affirmed the need to oppose Western penetration in the Muslim world

In his analysis he indicated the need to use Qur'an and hadiths as guides for the society

Issues non contemplated in the Qur'an should be analysed and solved through the free use of the reason

Muḥammad 'Abduh (1849-1905)

Ijtihad or “independent reasoning” is suggested as the main method to regulate social relations

this reflects the debate on: Analogical approach vs literal

Islamic reformism is crucial to understand the developments of important contemporary political movements such as the Muslim Brotherhood

Muḥammad Rashīd Riḍā (1865-1935)

Muḥammad Rashīd Riḍā (1865-1935)

He tried to address the issues of reforming Islam and strengthening the Muslim world to face Western imperial expansion

Key point in his analysis was the political independence of Muslim lands

In his analysis Rida tried to reconcile Islamic medieval thought and the challenges of modernity

He encouraged both laymen and scholars to interpret the primary sources of Islam themselves

Muḥammad Rashīd Riḍā (1865-1935)

He tried to sketch a political project based on the idea of a new caliphate organised on the principle of:

Separation among: Religion State Civil society

His thought was mainly condensed in the treatise Al-Khilafa wa al-Imamatu al-‘Uzma (The Caliphate and the Greater Imamate)

Islamic reformism has a long tradition and its offsprings can still be found in many regions:

It has been mainly based on brotherhoods Western Africa: Uthman Dan Fodio, Tijaniyya, Libya: Sanusiyya Egypt: Salafiyya, Algeria: Qadiriyya Saudi Arabia: Wahabbiyya Indonesia: Aceh, Padri Movement

Weekly readings

Şevket Pamuk, “Institutional Change and the Longevity of the Ottoman Empire, 1500-1800,” Journal of Interdisciplinary History, Vol. 35, No. 2 (2004), pp. 225-247

Margaret Kohn, “Afghānī on Empire, Islam, and Civilization,” Political Theory, Vol. 37, No. 3 (2009), pp. 398-422

All available on: jstor