Core Presentationson Research Communication

AuthorAID Workshop on Teaching Research CommunicationSri Lanka, May 2013

Barbara GastelProfessor, Texas A&M University

INASP Associate—AuthorAIDbgastel@cvm.tamu.edu

Main Goals of AuthorAID Teaching

• To help researchers obtain knowledge and skills useful in– Writing and publishing journal articles– Giving oral and poster presentations– Preparing grant proposals

• To foster motivation and confidence with regard to writing, publishing, and presenting

• To promote sharing of the knowledge and skills obtained

Intended Characteristics of AuthorAID Teaching

• Practical• Interactive• Enjoyable • Productive

Approaching a Writing Project

Overview

• Establishing the mindset (attitude)• Knowing the ethics• Preparing to write• Doing the writing• Revising your work

Establishing the Mindset

• Remember that you are writing to communicate, not to impress.

• Realize that those reading your work want you to do well.– Journal editors– Peer reviewers– Professors

The purpose of their constructive criticism is to help you succeed.

Knowing the Ethics

• Authenticity (not fabrication)• Accuracy

– Providing complete data (not only those supporting your hypothesis)

– Avoiding inappropriate manipulation of images such as photographs

– Using appropriate statistical procedures

Knowing the Ethics (cont)

• Originality– Not republishing the same findings (except under

special circumstances, with the original source cited)

– Not submitting the same manuscript to two or more journals at once

– Not dividing one small research project into many tiny papers (“salami science” or “cucumber science”)

Knowing the Ethics (cont)

• Credit– Citing sources of information and ideas (also aids

credibility, helps in finding out more)– Avoiding excessive use of others’ words

• Recording sources when copying items or taking notes• Placing in quotation marks, or indenting, items used

verbatim• Perhaps drafting some items while not looking at the

source materials

Knowing the Ethics (cont)

– Observing copyright and obtaining needed permissions

• Ethical treatment of humans and animals (and documentation thereof in publications)

• Disclosure of conflicts of interest– Financial– Other

A Resource on Ethics

On Being a Scientist: A Guide to Responsible Conduct in Research, 3rd edition (2009)

– From the US National Academies– Largely for graduate students– Available online at

http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=12192

– Video available at the same website

Preparing to Write

• Use published items as models.• Obtain and review instructions.• Perhaps consult a style manual—for example:

– The ACS (American Chemical Society) Style Guide– Scientific Style and Format– AMA (American Medical Association) Manual of

Style• While you are gathering content, write down

ideas that occur to you.

Preparing to Write (cont)

• Do lots of “prewriting”—for example:– Stack papers in the order you plan to cite them.– List points you want to make.– Perhaps make an outline.

• If you’re having trouble formulating ideas, perhaps do something else for a while.

Doing the Writing

• Schedule specific times to write.• Start with whatever part you find easiest.• Don’t interrupt your writing to search for

small details.• Realize that often in writing there is no “one

right way” but rather a series of problems with more than one solution.

Revising Your Work

• Note: Good writing is largely a matter of good revising.

• First revise your writing yourself. Then get feedback from others and revise more.

• Consider having an editor help you.• Avoid the temptation to keep revising your

writing forever.

Questions to Consider in Revising

• Does the manuscript contain everything it should?

• Does it contain anything it shouldn’t?• Is all the information accurate?• Is the content consistent throughout?• Is everything logically organized?• Is everything clearly worded?

Questions (cont)

• Are points stated briefly, simply, and directly? In other words, is everything concise?

• Are grammar, spelling, punctuation, and word use correct throughout?

• Are all figures and tables well designed?• Does the manuscript comply with the

instructions?

Wishing you much successwith your writing projects!

Choosing a Target Journal and Using Its Instructions to Authors

Identifying a Target Journal

• Decide early (before drafting the paper). Do not write the paper and then look for a journal.

• Look for journals that have published work similar to yours.

• Consider journals that have published work you cite.

Some Factors to Consider

• Aims and scope of journal• Audience• Prestige• Access• Impact• Publication time• Quality of reproduction• Publication costs, if any• Likelihood of acceptance

Using the Journal’s Instructions

• Obtain the journal’s instructions from its website.

• Read the instructions to authors before starting to prepare your paper.

• Consult the instructions while preparing your paper.

• Check the instructions again before submitting your paper.

Some Questions the Instructions May Answer

• What categories of article does the journal publish?

• What is the maximum length of articles?

• What is the maximum length of abstracts?

• Does the journal have a template for articles? If so, how can it be accessed?

• What sections should the article include? What are the guidelines for each?

Some Questions (cont)

• What guidelines should be followed regarding writing style?

• How many figures and tables are allowed? What are the requirements for them?

• In what format should references appear? Is there a maximum number of references?

• In what electronic format should the paper be prepared?

Mini Exercise

• Look at the instructions to authors from a journal in which you might like to publish.– How long are the instructions?– What topics do the instructions address?– What else do you notice?

• Share your observations with people near you, and be ready to share them with the full group.

Beyond the Instructions

• Look at some recent issues of the journal. Doing so can help you gear your paper to the journal.

The Structure of a Scientific Paper

The IMRAD Formatfor Scientific Papers

• Introduction: What was the question?

• Methods: How did you try to answer it?

• Results: What did you find?

• And

• Discussion: What does it mean?

A More Complete View

• (Title)• (Authors)• (Abstract)• Introduction• Methods• Results• Discussion• (Acknowledgments)• (References)

Some Other Structures

• With the methods section at the end (IRDAM)• With a combined results and discussion section

(IMRADRADRAD . . . )• With a conclusions section at the end (IMRADC)• Other• Question: In your research area, what is the

usual structure of papers reporting research?

Mini Exercise

• Look at a sample paper that you brought. Notice how it is structured.– Is it in IMRAD form? If not, what form is it in?– What else do you notice about its form?

• Compare your findings with those of some people near you.

• Be ready to report some observations to the full group.

Title

• The fewest possible words that adequately indicate the contents of the paper

• Important in literature searching• Should not include extra words, such as “A Study

of” or “Observations on”• Should be specific enough• Generally should not include abbreviations

• (Running title: short version of title—appears at tops of pages)

Mini Exercise

• Look at the title of an article that you brought. Consider– What’s good about the title?– What about the title might be improved?

• Compare your findings with those of some people near you.

• Be ready to report some observations to the full group.

Authors

• Those with important intellectual contributions to the work

• Often listed largely from greatest contributions to least

• Head of research group often is listed last

• In some fields, listed alphabetically

• Important to list one’s name the same way on every paper

The Abstract

• Briefly summarizes the paper

• Should be organized like the paper (for example, in sort of a mini-IMRAD format)

• In some fields, there are structured abstracts (with standardized headings).

Orders of Reading and WritingSections of a Paper

• People read the sections of scientific papers in various orders.– What’s your favorite order? Why?

• You can write the sections of a scientific paper in any order.– What’s your favorite order? Why?

• A convenient order in which to write the sections: Methods, Results, Discussion, Introduction

Preparing the Methods, Results, and Tables and Figures

Main Source of Informationfor These Lectures

• How to Write and Publish a Scientific Paper, 7th edition, by Robert A. Day and Barbara Gastel (2011)

The Methods Section

Purposes of the Methods Section

• To allow others to replicate what you did– In order to test it– In order to do further research

• To allow others to evaluate what you did– To determine whether the conclusions seem

valid– To determine whether the findings seem

applicable to other situations

Methods: Basic Informationto Include

• In most cases, overview of study design

• Identification of (if applicable)– Equipment, reagents, organisms, etc used

(and sources thereof)– Approval of human or animal research by an

appropriate committee– Statistical methods

Methods: Amount of Detail to Use

• For well-known methods: name of method, citation of reference

• For methods previously described but not well known: brief description of method, citation of reference

• For methods that you yourself devise: relatively detailed description

Methods: The Words and More

• Should be written in past tense

• In some journals, may include subheads

• May include tables and figures—for example:– Flowcharts– Diagrams of apparatus– Tables of experimental conditions

Methods: A Suggestion

Look at the methods sections of some papers in your target journal. Use them as models.

The Results Section

The Results Section

• The core of the paper

• Often includes tables, figures, or both

• Should summarize findings rather than providing data in great detail

• Should present results but not comment on them

• (Note: Some journals, however, combine the Results and the Discussion.)

Verb Tense for the Results Section:Past Tense

Examples:– A total of 417 samples were analyzed . . . .– _____ increased, but _____ decreased.– The median salary of these surgeons was

_____.– Three of the mixtures exploded.– This difference was not statistically significant.

Results Sections of Paperswith Tables or Figures

• How much should the information in the text overlap that in the tables and figures?– Not extensive overlap– In general, text should present only the main

points from the tables and figures– Perhaps also include a few of the most

important data

• Remember to mention each table or figure. Do so as soon as readers might want to see it.

Mentioning Tables and Figures:Some Writing Advice

• In citing tables and figures, emphasize the finding, not the table or figure.– Not so good: Table 3 shows that researchers

who attended the workshop published twice as many papers per year.

– Better: Researchers who attended the workshop published twice as many papers per year (Table 3).

Results: A Suggestion

• Look at the results sections of some papers in your target journal.

• Notice items such as the following:– Length– Organization– Inclusion of subheads (or not)– Number of tables and figures

• Use these results sections as models.

Tables and Figures:Some Basics

Tables: A Few Suggestions

• Use tables only if text will not suffice.

• Design tables to be understandable without the text.

• Organize each table in a logical way.

• If a paper includes a series of tables, use the same format for each.

• Be sure to follow the instructions to authors.

Figures: A Few Suggestions

• Use figures (graphs, diagrams, maps, photographs, etc) only if they will help convey your information.

• Avoid including too much information in one figure.

• Make sure any lettering will be large enough once published.

• Follow the journal’s instructions.

Discussion Question

• If you have data that could be presented in either a table or a figure, how do you decide which one to use?

A General Suggestion

• Look at tables and figures in journal articles presenting research similar to yours– In your target journal– In other good journals

• Use these tables and figures as models when designing your own tables and figures.

Sources of Further Information

• “Almost Everything You Wanted to Know About Making Tables and Figures,” Department of Biology, Bates College (http://abacus.bates.edu/~ganderso/biology/resources/writing/HTWtablefigs.html)

• Writing and Publishing Scientific Papers, Part 2 (from China Medical Board course), accessible at http://www.authoraid.info/resource-library?type=all&subject=preparing_tables_and_figures&lang=all

Brief Exercise

• Look at the methods and results sections of the sample articles that you brought.

• For each, please notice the following:– How are these sections structured and worded?– Are there tables and figures? If so, how are they?– What do you notice that you could use as a model?– What questions do you have?

• Discuss your observations and questions with one or more people sitting near you. Be ready to present some to the full group.

Publishing a Journal Article

Deciding What (or When) to Publish

• Some factors to consider: quality of the work, extent of the work, interest to others

• Suggestions:– Seek guidance in this regard from others in

your field who are more experienced in publishing journal articles.

– Present your work orally first. Doing so can help in deciding whether the work is publishable and in shaping the paper.

Submitting the Paper

• Traditional submission (by mail)—now rare

• Electronic submission– Commonly via online submission system– Sometimes as e-mail attachment

• Inclusion of a cover letter (conventional or electronic)

• Completion of required forms

Some Categories of Editorsat Journals

• Helpful to know because you might interact with each

• Main categories:– Editor-in-chief (and sometimes associate

editors etc)—concerned mainly with content– Managing editor(s)—concerned mainly with

administration of the journal– Manuscript editor(s)—improve the writing and

maintain a consistent style

Initial Screening by the Journal

• For appropriateness of subject matter

• For compliance with instructions

• For overall quality (sometimes)

Peer Review

• Evaluation by experts in the field

• Purposes:– To help the editor decide whether to publish

the paper– To help the authors improve the paper,

whether or not the journal accepts it

The Editor’s Decision

• Based on the peer reviewers’ advice, the editor’s own evaluation, the amount of space in the journal, other factors

• Options:– Accept as is (rare)– Accept if suitably revised– Reconsider if revised– Reject

Revising a Paper

• Revise and resubmit promptly.• Indicate what revisions were made.

– Include a letter saying what revisions were made. If you received a list of requested revisions, address each in the letter.

– If requested, show revisions in Track Changes.

• If you disagree with a requested revision, politely explain why in your letter. Try to find a different way to solve the problem that the editor or reviewer identified.

Answering Queries

• Queries: questions from the manuscript editor

• Some topics of queries:– Inconsistencies– Missing information– Ambiguities– Other

• Advice: Respond promptly, politely, and completely yet concisely.

Reviewing Proofs

• Proofs: typeset material to check• Review the proofs promptly.• Some things to check:

– Completeness (presence of all components)– Accuracy (absence of typographical errors in

text and references)– Placement of figures and tables– Quality of reproduction of figures

• Note: This is not the time to rewrite the paper.

A Final Step: Celebrate Publication of Your Paper!

The Discussion

Discussion

• One of the more difficult parts to write, because have more choice of what to say

• Often should begin with a brief summary of the main findings

• Should answer the question(s) stated in the introduction (or address the hypothesis or hypotheses stated in the introduction)

The Discussion:Some Possible Content

• Strengths of the study– For example, superior methods, extensive data

• Limitations of the study– For example: small sample size, short follow-up,

incomplete data, possible sources of bias, problems with experimental procedures

– Better to mention limitations than for peer reviewers and readers to think that you’re unaware of them

– If the limitations seem unlikely to affect the conclusions, can explain why

The Discussion:Possible Content (cont)

• Relationship to findings of other research—for example:– Similarities to previous findings (your own,

others’, or both)– Differences from previous findings– Possible reasons for similarities and

differences

The Discussion:Possible Content (cont)

• Applications and implications—for example:– Possible uses of the findings (in industry,

environmental policy, health care, etc)– Relationship of the findings to theories or

models:• Do the findings support them?• Do they refute them?• Do they suggest modifications?

The Discussion:Possible Content (cont)

• Other research needed—for example:– To address questions still unanswered– To address new questions raised by the

findings

• Other

Discussion (cont)

• Typically should move from specific to general, rather like an inverted funnel (opposite of introduction)

• In some journals, may be followed by a conclusions section

• In some short papers, is called “Comment” rather than “Discussion”

The Discussion: A Suggestion

• Look at the discussion sections of some papers in your target journal.

• Notice items such as the following:– Length– Types of content– Organization– Phrases commonly used– Citation of references

• Use these discussion sections as models.

The Introduction

Purposes of the Introduction

• To provide background– In order to help readers understand the paper– In order to help readers appreciate the

importance of the research

• To identify the question(s) the research addressed– Sometimes stated as a hypothesis or

hypotheses

Length of Introduction

• Articles in biomedical journals: tend to have short introductions (a few paragraphs or less)

• Articles in some other journals: tend to have long introductions

• How about introductions to articles in your research area?

Gearing the Introductionto the Audience

• Papers in relatively general journals: Introduction must provide basic background information.

• Papers in specialized journals: Introduction can assume that readers have more knowledge about the research topic.

Structure of the Introduction

• Introduction typically should be funnel-shaped, moving from general to specific

• A common structure:– Information on importance of topic– Highlights of relevant previous research– Identification of unanswered question(s)– Approach you used to seek the answer(s)– (In some cases, the main findings)

Overall Structure of a Paper:Like an Hourglass

The Introduction: A Suggestion

• Look at introductions of some papers in your target journal.

• Notice items such as the following:– Length– Types of content– Organization– Citation of references

• Use these introductions as models.

When to Write the Introduction

• Sometimes wise to write the introduction last– “Until you know what you’re introducing, you

can’t introduce it.”

• Sometimes useful to write it first, to help provide focus

• After writing all the sections of the paper, revise the paper as a whole (typically several times).

Citing References

Functions of References

• To give credit to others for their work

• To add credibility to your work by showing that you used valid information sources

• To help show how your work is related to previous work

• To help readers find further information

References:Importance of Accuracy

• Studies show that many references are inaccurate.

• For references to fulfill their functions, they must be accurate. Therefore– Make sure that you accurately state what the

cited material says.– Make sure that all information in the citation

(for example, author list, article title, journal title, volume, year, pages) is accurate.

Another Reason Your References Should Be Accurate

Often, authors whose work you cite will be your peer reviewers. Inaccurate references to their work will not impress them favorably.

Formats

• Various formats exist for citation in text—for example:– Accuracy of references is important (Day and Gastel,

2011).– Accuracy of references is important.3

• Various formats exist for items in reference lists—for example:– Pineda D. 2003. Communication of science in

Colombia. Sci. Ed. 26:91-92.– Pineda D. Communication of science in Colombia. Sci

Ed 2003;26:91-2.

A Reminder

Be sure to use the format that your target journal requests.

– For the citations in the text– For the reference list

Citation Management Software

• Examples: EndNote, Reference Manager, RefWorks, Zotero

• Allows you to keep a database of references

• In many cases, provides the citations and references in the proper format for your target journal

Placement of Citations

• Ambiguous:– This compound has been found in humans, dogs,

rabbits, and squirrels (Tuda and Gastel, 1997; Xie and Lozano, 2008; Flores, 2002).

– This compound has been found in humans, dogs, rabbits, and squirrels.1,4,7

• Clear:– This compound has been found in humans (Tuda and

Gastel, 1997), dogs (Xie and Lozano, 2008), and rabbits and squirrels (Flores, 2002).

– This compound has been found in humans,1 dogs,4

rabbits,7 and squirrels.7

Other Advice on References

• If you haven’t read an item, don’t cite it. – Discussion question: If an article isn’t freely

accessible online, how might you obtain it?

• Check each reference against the original source.

• Carefully follow the journal’s instructions to authors.

• Use other articles in the same journal as models.

Brief Exercise

• Look at the introduction, discussion, and references of the sample articles you brought.

• For each, please notice the following:– How are the introduction and discussion structured?– How are references used?– What do you notice that you could use as a model?– What questions and other observations do you have?

• Discuss your observations and questions with one or more people sitting near you. Be ready to present some to the full group.

Writing Effectively in English about Research

Some Aspects of Writing Style

Style for Research Writing:General Guidelines

• Write simply and directly.– Readers should notice mainly the content, not the

language.– Remember: Many readers don’t have a strong

background in English. And almost all readers are busy.

– As stated earlier: Write to communicate, not to impress.

• Follow instructions (and conventions) regarding structure.

Style for Research Writing:General Guidelines (cont)

• If appropriate, use subheadings to guide readers.

• Organize information carefully at all levels.

• Provide overviews before details.

• In general, avoid very long paragraphs.

• In general, avoid very long sentences.

• Use mainly simple sentence structures.

Style for Research Writing:General Guidelines (cont)

• Where possible, use common words.

• Define terms that might be unfamiliar to readers.

• In general, use only standard acronyms.

• Remember to define acronyms.

• Write concisely.– Saves space– Helps readability

Writing Readably: A Brief Exercise

• Using simple, common words– attempt→ fundamental→

• Deleting needless words– red in color→ totally destroyed→

• Condensing wordy phrases– at this point in time→ in the event that→

• Using verbs, not nouns made from them– produce relief of→ provide an

explanation→

Writing in Englishabout Research

The Essentials

• The essentials are content, organization, and clarity.

• If a paper has excellent content, is well organized, and is clear, it is likely to be accepted even if the English is so-so.

• If a paper has poor content, is badly organized, or is unclear, it is likely to be rejected even if the English is excellent.

Cultural Differences to Consider

• Directness of expression?

• Amount of detail?

• Attitudes toward time?

• Attitudes toward using material taken from others’ writing?

• Other?

English-Language Challenges for Native Speakers of Some Languages

• Verb tenses

• Prepositions

• Articles (the, a, an)

• Sentence structure

• Sentence length

• Other

• (Which, if any, of these apply to your situation?)

Some Strategies

• Compiling lists of words and phrases commonly used in your field

• Writing simply

• Having people with a strong command of English review your drafts

• Other

Continuing to Strengthen Your Writing: Some Strategies and

Resources

Some Strategies for Strengthening Your Writing

• Read, read, read.

• Write, write, write.

• Teach others about research writing.

• Be a peer reviewer.

• Join (or form) a journal club.

• Join (or form) a writing group.

• Other

Some Resources

Some Resources Mainly forNon-Native Users of English

• UsingEnglish.com (www.usingenglish.com)• Academic Phrasebank

(www.phrasebank.manchester.ac.uk)• Scientific English (set of lessons accessible

through www.authoraid.info/resource-library/china-medical-board-program-resources/cmb-lessons-in-scientific-writing/folder_contents)

Some Other Useful Resources

• Getting the Most out of Words, from Editing and Publication: A Training Manual (available at www.authoraid.info/resource-library/Editing%20and%20Publication-Chapter%202.pdf/view)

• OneLook Dictionary Search (www.onelook.com)• Grammar Girl (grammar.quickanddirtytips.com)• The Elements of Style (www.bartleby.com/141/)

Publishing Your Research 101

Video Series from the American Chemical Society

Books on Research Writing

Some Examples•How to Write, Publish, and Present in the Health Sciences, by Thomas A. Lang, 2010•Essentials of Writing Biomedical Research Papers, 2nd edition, by Mimi Zeiger, 2000•A Short Guide to Writing about Chemistry, by Holly B. Davis, Julian F. Tyson, and Jan A. Pechenik, 2010•Write Like a Chemist: A Guide and Resource, by Marin S. Robinson and others, 2008•The Art of Scientific Writing : From Student Reports to Professional Publications in Chemistry and Related Fields, 2nd edition, by Hans F. Ebel, Claus Bliefert, and William E. Russey, 2004

AuthorAID at INASP(www.authoraid.info)

• A project mainly to help researchers in developing countries to write about and publish their work

• Major components– Workshops– Openly accessible content, including a

resource library and blog– Online community, including mentors– Grants: workshop, travel, course attendance

Joining AuthorAID

• Optional (can access almost all of the content without joining)

• Benefits—opportunities to– Be a mentee or mentor– Contact other AuthorAID members– Take part in the e-mail discussion list– Be informed by e-mail when new blog posts

and resources appear on the AuthorAID website

AuthorAID:A “Meta-Resource”

Preparing Poster Presentations and Oral Presentations

Obtaining Chances to Present

• Unsolicited invitations

• Submission and peer review of abstracts– Sometimes abstracts of proposed

presentations• may be longer than abstracts of journal articles• may include one or two figures or tables

– Of course, follow the instructions.– Write abstracts readably, especially as

reviewers are busy.

Poster Presentations

Planning a Poster

• Choose a narrow enough topic. (Here “salami science” or “cucumber science” might be OK.)

• Plan to present only highlights.• Obtain and carefully follow instructions.• Select images that present key messages and

attract viewers.• Plan to include little text.• Plan to make the poster understandable on its

own.

Organizing a Poster

• Organize the poster logically (example: Introduction, Methods, Results, Conclusions).

• If the poster has a “landscape” format, place the content in about 3 to 5 vertical columns.

• Include plenty of white space.

• In general, don’t include an abstract.

Preparing a Poster: The Title

• Keep the title fairly short.

• Perhaps try to make the title attention-grabbing.

• Use large enough type (at least about 2.5 cm, or 1 inch, high).

• Normally, don’t use all capital letters. (DON’T USE ALL CAPITAL LETTERS.)

Preparing a Poster: The Images

• Use images (photographs, flow charts, graphs, etc) that both attract and inform.

• Keep the images simple, so they can be quickly understood.

• In general, use graphs, not tables.

• Make the images large enough.

• Remember to label each image.

• Use color effectively.

Preparing a Poster: The Text

• Keep the text brief.

• Make the type large enough to read easily.

• Where feasible, use bulleted or numbered lists rather than paragraphs.

• If paragraphs are used, keep them short.

• Include your contact information.

• Proofread the text carefully.

Presenting a Poster

• Don’t be shy.

• Think ahead about questions you might be asked.

• Perhaps ask some questions.

• Take advantage of the chance for feedback.

• Take advantage of the chance to network.

Presenting a Poster (cont)

• Have business cards available.

• Consider having handouts.

• Consider having people sign up for further information.

• If you’ll write a paper about the work presented, keep in mind comments and questions from the poster session.

Some Resources

• “Designing Scientific Posters” by Colin Purrington (posted at http://colinpurrington.com/tips/academic/posterdesign)

• “Better Posters: A Resource for Improving Poster Presentations” (blog at http://betterposters.blogspot.com/)

Oral Presentations

Preparing an Oral Presentation

• Obtain and carefully follow instructions.

• Include much less detail than in a paper to publish.

• Stick to the main idea.

• Give the presentation a beginning, a middle, and an end.

• If feasible, structure the presentation largely as a story.

Preparing a Presentation (cont)

• Remember: People must be able to understand what you say as you say it. Therefore, for example:– Pace the presentation carefully.– Repeat important points.

• Minimize use of abbreviations/acronyms.

• In general, prepare notes, not a full text.

Preparing Slides: Some Guidelines

• At most one slide per minute, on average

• One theme or idea per slide

• Simple and uncrowded

• Thus, usually no published graphs/tables

• Bullet points (not paragraphs) for most text

• Large enough lettering to read

Compare this slide and the previous one.

In general, do not average more than one slide per minute. Limit each slide to one theme or idea. Keep slides simple and uncrowded. Thus, beware of using published graphs and tables. In general, use bullet points (not paragraphs) for text. Make sure all lettering is large enough to read.

Rehearsing the Presentation

• Time the presentation carefully.

• Try to make the presentation slightly shorter than the allotted time.

• Perhaps rehearse for others.

• Perhaps have others ask you questions.

Coping with Stage Fright

• Note that a little nervousness can help you perform well.

• Realize that people will attend to hear the content, not to judge your speaking style.

• Prepare well, but don’t over-prepare.

• Exercise a little.

• Beware of too much food, water, or caffeine.

Coping with Stage Fright (cont)

• Hide physical signs of anxiety.

• Realize that a presentation need not be perfect to be excellent.

Giving the Presentation

• Arrive early.

• Make sure audiovisuals are working.

• Speak slowly enough.

• Speak clearly.

• Look at the audience.

• Show enthusiasm.

• Avoid distracting habits.

Answering Questions

• Lay the groundwork for relevant questions (for example, by stating in your talk some items that people can ask about).

• Perhaps have the moderator or a colleague to ask the first question.

• Briefly repeat each question.

• Keep answers brief.

Answering Questions (cont)

• If you don’t know an answer, say so. Perhaps– offer to find out,– suggest how to find out, or – see if someone present has the answer.

• If a question seems irrelevant, offer to answer it later, or move to a related item.

• If a question is hostile, answer politely and briefly; perhaps offer to talk later.

Answering Questions (cont)

• Make note of questions. Use them to help shape future presentations and publications about the work.

Preparing Grant Proposals,Curricula Vitae,

and Progress Reports

Applying for Grants

• A Brief Introduction• Preparing to Apply for a Grant• Writing a Grant Proposal—Components and

Advice

Applying for Grants:A Brief Introduction

Seeking a Possible Match:Two Approaches

• Identifying something you wish to do and then seeking a suitable funding source

• Looking for a request for proposals in your field and then developing a proposal that meets the criteria

• (Note: Sometimes a request for proposals has another name, such as call for proposals or program announcement.)

Key Advice on Preparing Proposals (to be discussed more later)

• Seek a funding source well matched with your goals.

• Start preparing your proposal early.

• Gather plenty of information.

• Follow the instructions carefully.

• Prepare a detailed, realistic budget.

• Write readably.

• Revise, revise, revise.

Evaluation of Grant Proposals

• Typically, committees evaluate proposals.

• These committees generally contain experts in the field of work. Sometimes they include others too.

• Often, these committees both– Determine which proposals are acceptable– Determine which proposals are best (because

not enough money is available to fund all acceptable proposals)

Following Up

• If your proposal is funded, doing and reporting on the work

• If you are invited to revise and resubmit the proposal, proceeding accordingly

• Otherwise, deciding how to proceed (Note: Even if your proposal is not funded, you may receive feedback that can help in preparing future proposals.)

Preparing to Apply for a Grant

Finding Suitable Funding Sources

Potential Sites of Funding:Some Sources of Ideas

• Colleagues, mentors, and administrators• Grant offices at some institutions• Acknowledgments etc in journal articles• Published or posted announcements

(calls for proposals)• E-mail lists in your field or at your

institution• Published or posted guides• Internet searching

Looking for a Good Match

Seek funding from entities

• With goals that are consistent with what you want to do

• That tend to give grants of the size you are seeking

• If possible, with programs that match your intended work

* * * Note * * *

Consulting a program officer at the potential funding source can be very helpful.

Reviewing the Literature:A Foundation for a Proposal

Some Reasons to Search the Literature When Writing a Proposal

• To help determine and document the need for what is being proposed

• To help see what work already has been done and thus what remains to be done

• To identify approaches to consider using in the proposed work

• To see what funding sources others used

• Other

Some General Suggestions

• If appropriate, use more than one database.• Consider asking librarians for guidance.• Keep good records of what you found, so you

can easily cite it.• Consider using reference management software

(for example, EndNote, RefWorks, or Zotero).• Accurately present the cited content. (Note:

Your peer reviewers are likely to know the literature. And they might be the authors of some of the works cited.)

Accessing Relevant Literature

• Many articles, even in journals that are not fully open access, are openly accessible through journal websites.

• Resources from INASP increase developing-country libraries’ access to journal content.

• Articles of interest sometimes can be found in institutional and other repositories.

• Authors’ websites sometimes contain articles or links to them.

If all else fails . . .

• If you want a paper or chapter but can’t obtain it a usual way, perhaps contact the author. Many authors are willing to share copies of their work.

• Also consider contacting the journal editor. Editors of small journals might be especially willing to help.

• If you still can’t obtain the item, consider contacting an international colleague who might have access to it. For example, an AuthorAID mentor might be able to help.

A Few Examples of Resources

• Sri Lanka Journals Online: http://www.sljol.info/ • Other “Journals Online” Collections: see

http://www.inasp.info/en/work/what-we-do/projects/journals-online/current-jols/

• Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ): http://www.doaj.org

• Google Scholar: http://scholar.google.com• PubMed: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed

Making Other Preparations

Starting Early

• Even a short proposal can take a long time. Therefore start early.

• For large grant proposals, it can be advisable to begin at least 6 months before the deadline.

Analyzing Instructions, Examples, etc

• Carefully review materials from the potential funding source.

• Consult the program officer, if appropriate.

• If possible, look at examples of successful proposals to the funding source.– From colleagues– From the program officer– Published or posted

Doing the Groundwork

• As noted, review the literature on work related to yours. Be prepared to cite it.

• Start developing a persuasive explanation of why the proposed project is valuable.

• If your proposal will be for research, formulate one or more well-defined, potentially productive hypotheses or research questions. Beware of proposing a project that is unrealistically large.

Assembling Collaborators

• If you want others to join the project team, invite them. Ask them for needed items, such as information and CVs.

• If you want outside participants, such as consultants, invite them. If appropriate, obtain CVs and letters of support.

• Consider including a writer or editor on the grant-preparation team.

Establishing Timelines

• Especially if you’re preparing a large proposal, draft a schedule for doing so. Include time for institutional approvals, if needed.

• Consider preparing a timeline (such as a Gantt chart) for the proposed project. Indicate dates on which you plan to start and finish each main part of the project.

Gathering Budgetary Information

• Start identifying items that you’ll ask the funding source to pay for.

• Start determining the cost of each.

• If your institution will contribute resources, identify them, and determine how much they are worth.

Doing Other Items

• If advisable, do preliminary studies.

• If appropriate, consider sustainability.

• If required, submit a letter of intent or a letter of inquiry (“pre-proposal”).

• Other?

Writing a Grant Proposal:Components and Advice

Grant Proposals as Persuasive Writing

Proposals must persuade potential funders that• the goal of the proposed work is worthwhile• the goal is relevant to the funder’s mission• the proposed approach is sound• the staff is capable of doing the work• adequate facilities will be available• the requested amount of funding is reasonable• other?

Some Items That Help Make a Proposal Persuasive

• Inclusion of reasons for choices (for example, of techniques, sample sizes, durations, consultants, venues)

• Inclusion of supporting evidence (for example, published findings, preliminary data, calculations, CVs, letters of agreement)

• Competent writing (helps show capability)

Some Common Sections of Proposals

• Background information• Statement of goals• Research plan or program plan• Budget• Information on qualifications of staff (for example, resumes, CVs, or biosketches)

(Note: Depending on the requirements, proposals can range from one page to many pages.)

Some Other Items Sometimes Included

• Letter of transmittal (cover letter)• Title page• Abstract• Table of contents• Lists of tables and figures• Description of predicted impact• Evaluation plan• Plan for disseminating results• Information on facilities• Reference list

Appendixes

• Optional to include

• Examples– Papers accepted but not yet published– Letters of support from potential collaborators– Additional details about activities planned

• Remember: Reviewers typically are not obligated to look at appendixes.

Titles and Abstracts

• Short but important• Provide the first impression• Sometimes used in choosing peer reviewers• Help administrators and reviewers grasp the

essence and importance of the work• Also remind reviewers about what they have

read in the proposal• Should be clear and concise• Give them the time they deserve!

Advice on Writing the Proposal

Writing the Proposal

• Read the instructions carefully, and follow them exactly.

• Match the technical level of the proposal to the background of the reviewers.

• Remember to include the 5 Ws and an H: who, what, where, when, why, and how.

• Include reasons for your choices.

Writing the Proposal (cont)

• Write the proposal readably. For example– Organize the writing carefully.– Present overviews before details.– Use simple, common wording where possible.– Avoid wordy phrases.– Make effective (but not excessive) use of such

devices as headings, boldface, and italics.

Writing the Proposal (cont)

• Include a carefully prepared, realistic budget.

• If relevant, include a timeline.

• If relevant, include tables and figures.

• If the proposal will include an abstract, devote special care to it.

• If the potential funder has forms to use, complete them carefully.

Writing the Proposal (cont)

• If part or all of the proposal will consist of freestanding text, format it readably– Standard typeface– Large enough type and margins– Unjustified (ragged) right margin unless otherwise

requested

• Have others review drafts of your proposal.• Double-check that instructions were followed.• Carefully follow instructions for submitting the

proposal (often done electronically).

An Excellent Abstract of a Proposal

Some Resources

• Proposal Writing Short Course (from the Foundation Center; available in 6 languages): http://foundationcenter.org/getstarted/tutorials/shortcourse

• Writing Your [Grant] Application: http://grants.nih.gov/grants/writing_application.htm

• Grand Challenges Canada Proposal Development Resource (http://www.grandchallenges.ca/proposaldevelopment/)

• AuthorAID: http://www.authoraid.info

Preparing a CV

The Curriculum Vitae: Some Basics

• Curriculum vitae: the academic equivalent of a resume

• Commonly called a CV• Lists your education, experience, publications,

honors, etc• Often required in proposals to help show that

you are qualified for what you are proposing• Also used when applying for fellowships, jobs,

honors, etc

A Resource

• From the Columbia University Center for Career Education

• Includes advice and a sample CV• URL:

http://www.careereducation.columbia.edu/resources/tipsheets/resumes-and-cvs-curriculum-vitae

Standardized CVs

• Required by some granting agencies

• Have specific instructions to follow—for example, regarding– Types of information to include– Organization of information– Length

• A brief look at an example

Preparing a CV to Use in a Proposal

• Follow instructions carefully.

• In general, use reverse chronological order.

• Emphasize items that help show you’re well qualified for what you’re proposing. – What might be some examples?– Therefore you may have different versions of

your CV for different proposals.

Preparing a CV: More Tips

• If an item may be unclear to readers, include a brief explanation.

• When listing papers you have written for publication:– If a paper has been accepted but not yet

published, list it under Publications as “In press” or “Forthcoming”.

– If a paper has been submitted but not yet accepted, do not list it (or list it under Research rather than Publications).

Preparing a CV: More Tips

• Whatever opportunity is being sought, tailor the CV to the specific opportunity.

• Don’t include items that aren’t very relevant (examples: height, weight, marital status, high school attended, hobbies).

An Idea

• For appropriate examples, look on the Web for CVs of people in your field.

Preparing Progress Reports

Progress Reports: Some Functions

• For the funding source or supervisor: help see how the work is progressing and thus whether the plans or funding level should be adjusted

• For those doing the work:– Provide incentive to keep up– Aid in assessing one’s own progress and adjusting

one’s approach– Provide material to use in presentations and

publications

Preparing to Write a Progress Report

• Obtain any instructions or forms.

• If feasible, obtain relevant examples to use as models.

• Review your proposal or project plan.

Progress Reports: A Common Structure

• Background information– Summary of project plan

• Description of present status– Achievements thus far– Comparison of progress with that expected– Significant problems encountered, if any

• Conclusions– Overall assessment– Proposed modifications, if any

Writing a Progress Report

• In general, structure the progress report like the project plan.

• Be specific. Include numbers, names, and dates.

• If appropriate, include tables and figures.

• Consider using headings etc to guide readers.

Writing a Progress Report (cont)

• Strive to sound positive, competent, and confident.

• Do not hide problems. Say how they are being addressed.

• If you write a series of progress reports on a project, put each in the same format.

• Edit the progress report carefully.

Thank you for your attention!