Copyright © 1998-2007, Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Economics & Geography, Hofstra University....

Copyright © 1998-2007, Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Economics & Geography, Hofstra University. For personal or classroom use ONLY. This material (including graphics) is not public domain and cannot be published, in whole or in part, in ANY form (printed or electronic) and on any media without consent. This includes conference presentations. Permission MUST be requested prior to use.

THE GEOGRAPHY

OF TRANSPORT

SYSTEMS

Chapter 8 – Transport and the EnvironmentChapter 8 – Transport and the Environment

CONCEPTSCopyright © 1999-2007, Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Economics & Geography, Hofstra University, Hempstead, NY, 11549 [email protected] may use the figures within for educational purposes only. No modification or redistribution permitted.For more information: http://people.hofstra.edu/geotrans

THE GEOGRAPHY

OF TRANSPORT

SYSTEMS

Concept 1

The Emerging Issue of Transport and the Environment


The Paradox of Mobility and its Costs

MobilityMobility CostsCostsParadox

Growing demandGrowing demand

MotorizationMotorization

Energy (petroleum)Energy (petroleum)

Internal costs (users)Internal costs (users)

External costs (society)External costs (society)

Environmental impactsEnvironmental impacts


The Environmental System

Ecosphere

Atmosphere

Hydrosphere

Lith

osph

ere

Biosphere


4. ECOSPHERE

4.1 AQUATIC ECOSPHEREAlteration of ecosystems in unforeseeable ways.Disappearance of vulnerable species and proliferation of tolerant ones.Reduction of bacterial treatment of organic matter by nitrification.Reduction of available nutrients to aquatic species.Reproductive impediments.

4.2 LAND ECOSPHEREDamages over the vegetation modifying:

hydric cycles.the level of underground water resources.soil erosion.air purification capacity of the ecosphere.food sources (agriculture).entertainment and tourism.

Reduction of the vital space.Reduction of the genetic potential of species.Reduction of the food supply and alteration of the food chain.Consumption of resources.

4.3 HUMAN ECOSPHEREOdors.Noise.Cardiovascular and respiratory problems.Susceptibility to infection.Drops in life expectancy.Injuries, incapacity, hospitalization, death.Damage to structures:

loss of useful life. (amortization)loss of property values.corrosion of metal structures (bronze, steel, etc.).destruction of historical and cultural monuments.

1. ATMOSPHERELarge scale diffusion of pollutants.High growth on a short term basis of the concentration of pollutants because of local conditions (e.g. smog).Photochemical reactions caused by ultraviolet rays, notably over ozone, sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide.Climatic changes (global warming).Acid rain.Synergetic effects when pollutants are combined (e.g. smog and greenhouse gases).

2. HYDROSPHEREDiffusion of pollutants in a dissolved or colloidal state.Acidification and loss of neutralizing potential of ground and underground water.Drops of pH following snow melting (aquatic organism are particularly vulnerable).Growth in the solubility of several metals because of acidification.Additions of organic compounds, aluminum, manganese, calcium, magnesium and potassium by runoffs.Contamination of ground and underground water by nitrates.

3. LITHOSPHEREAcid depositions.Liberation of toxic metallic ions (aluminum, cadmium, etc.) through acidification.Loss of nutrients, notably calcium and magnesium.Inhibition of the miniralization of nitrogen.Modifications in the compositions and the depth of decomposition gradient.Inhibition of decomposition.Loss of the soil flora and fauna.Fixation by plants of heavy metals (e.g. lead) and contamination.Removal and consumption of land.Extraction of raw materials like mineral products and energy.

The Environmental Impacts of Transportation


Estimated Automobile Costs, 2005

32%

24%

44% External cost

Internal fixed costs

Internal variable costs


Environmental Dimensions of Transportation

Land UseLand Use

EconomicsEconomics

OtherOther

Infrastructureconstruction

and maintenance

Vehicle and partsmanufacture

Travel

Vehiclemaintenance and

support

Disposal ofvehicles and parts

Infrastructureconstruction

and maintenance

Vehicle and partsmanufacture

Travel

Vehiclemaintenance and

support

Disposal ofvehicles and parts

Habitat changesHabitat changes

EmissionsEmissions

Ambient levelsAmbient levels

ExposureExposure

Social orecological

effects

Social orecological

effects

Health,environmental

or welfareeffects

Health,environmental

or welfareeffects

Causes Activities Outputs End Results


Transportation Activities Affecting the Environment

InfrastructureInfrastructure

Vehicle manufactureVehicle manufacture

Vehicle travelVehicle travel

Vehicle maintenanceVehicle maintenance

Vehicle disposalVehicle disposal

RoadRoad

RailRail

MaritimeMaritime

AirAir

PassengersPassengers

FreightFreight

ActivityActivity ModeMode TrafficTraffic


Transportation Systems and the Environment

Localized emissionsEnergy efficient

Diffused networkCentralized network

Diffused emissionsHigh energy use

TrafficLevel of emissionsLevel of energy consumption

Mode

CarBusWalkingRail

Nature of emissionsNature of energy consumption

Netw

orkTraffic

Mode


Spatial and Durational Environmental Effects

Space

Duration

Noise

Lead

Particulates

NOX

CO2

Local Regional Global


Fossil fuels

Atmosphere

Limestone

Animal activities

Decomposition

Human activities

Respiration and assimilation

Respiration and assimilation

Respiration

Respiration

Emission

Lithosphere

Ecosphere

Hydrosphere

Transportation

The Carbon Cycle

Vegetation


Level of intervention

Optimal cost

Intervention costs

Total costs

Externalities

The Concept of Externalities

LL(O)0 L1

C(L1)

C(O)

C(E)

E(L1)

ΔE(L1)

ΔC(L1)

THE GEOGRAPHY

OF TRANSPORT

SYSTEMS

Concept 2

Transportation and Energy


Sources of Energy

Chemical• Fossil fuels (Combustion)Nuclear• Uranium (Fission of atoms)

Chemical• Fossil fuels (Combustion)Nuclear• Uranium (Fission of atoms)

EnergyEnergy

Non-RenewableNon-Renewable

RenewableRenewable

Chemical• Muscular (Oxidization)Nuclear• Geothermal (Conversion)• Fusion (Fusion of hydrogen)Gravity• Tidal, hydraulic (Kinetic)Indirect Solar• Biomass (Photosynthesis)• Wind (Pressure differences)Direct Solar• Photovoltaic cell (Conversion)

Chemical• Muscular (Oxidization)Nuclear• Geothermal (Conversion)• Fusion (Fusion of hydrogen)Gravity• Tidal, hydraulic (Kinetic)Indirect Solar• Biomass (Photosynthesis)• Wind (Pressure differences)Direct Solar• Photovoltaic cell (Conversion)


Chemical Energy Content of some Fuels (in MJ/kg)

0 20 40 60 80 100 120

Hydrogen

LNG

Natural Gas

Methane

Gasoline

Kerosene

Diesel

Crude Oil

Methanol

Ethanol

Coal

Wood


Power Generated by Steam Machines, Europe, 1840-1888

0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1888

Thou

sand

s of

hor

se p

ower

Rest of EuropeRussiaAustriaGermanyFranceGreat Britain


Evolution of Energy Sources

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

15th Century

Mid 19thCentury

Early 20thCentury

Late 20thCentury

Mid 21stCentury

Animal

Biomass

Coal

Oil

Natural Gas

Nuclear

Hydrogen


World Energy Production (in Terawatts), 2006

37.8%

23.6%

25.6%

6.1% 6.1% 0.9%

Oil

Natural Gas

Coal

Hydroelectric

Nuclear

Alternative


Global Energy Systems Transition, (% of market)

20001850 21502050 210019501900

100

80

60

40

20

0

Solids

Liquids

Gases

Wood Coal

Oil

Natural Gas

Hydrogen


World Energy Consumption, 1965-2006 (Million tons oil equivalent)

0

2,000

4,000

6,000

8,000

10,000

12,000

1965

1967

1969

1971

1973

1975

1977

1979

1981

1983

1985

1987

1989

1991

1993

1995

1997

1999

2001

2003

2005

Hydro

Nuclear

Coal

Gas

Oil


World Marketed Energy Consumption by Region, 1980-2030

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2003 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030

Qua

drill

ion

Btu

Non-OECDOECD


.1

1

10

.01

.00210 30 100 300 1000

Speed (m/sec)

Tanker

Oil

Pipe

line

Truck

Cargo planeB

icyc

le

Bus

Train

Car

Helicopter

Propellerplane

Jetplane

Supersonicplane

Train

Freight

Passengers

Worst perf

orman

ce

Best p

erform

ance

Ener

gy c

osts

Container ship

Gaspipeline

Energy Efficiency by Transportation Mode


Energy Used by the Transportation System

66%4%

1%

7%

5%

17%Vehicle operation

Vehicle maintenance

Vehicle manufacture

Infrastructure provision

Raw materialmanufacture

Energy generation


Factors of Fuel Use by Transportation

TechnologyVehicle efficiency

Type of fuel

TechnologyVehicle efficiency

Type of fuel

EconomicsPrices and incomes

EconomicsPrices and incomes

Infrastructureprovision and

Levels of service

Infrastructureprovision and

Levels of service

Urban FormDensity and distribution

Urban FormDensity and distribution

Fuel UseFuel Use


Typical Energy Use for a Car

12%

32%

29%

13%

6%8%

Momentum

Exhaust

Cylinder cooling

Engine friction

Transmission and axles

Braking


World Oil Energy Consumption by Sector, 1973-2004

20.9

9.9

42.3

57.7

12.2

16.8

24.6

15.6

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

1973

2004Industry

Transport

Non-energy

Other sectors


Demand for Refined Petroleum Products by Sector in the United States, 1960-2005 (in Quadrillion BTUs)

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005

Transportation Industrial Residential and commercial Electric utilities


Energy Consumption by Transportation Mode in the United States, 1960-2004 (in Trillion BTUs)

0

5,000

10,000

15,000

20,000

25,000

30,000

1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2004

Pipeline

Water

Rail

Road

Air


Energy Consumption by Road Transportation in the United States, 1970-2004 (in Trillion BTUs)

0

2,000

4,000

6,000

8,000

10,000

12,000

14,000

16,000

18,000

20,000

22,000

1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2004

Bus

Combination Truck

Single-Unit 2-Axle 6-Tire or MoreTruck

Other 2-Axle 4-Tire Vehicle

Passenger Car & Motorcycle


Energy Intensities of Passenger Modes, 1980-2000

0

1,000

2,000

3,000

4,000

5,000

6,000

Btu

per

pas

seng

er-m

ile AutomobilesTransit busesIntercity busesCertified air carriers Intercity AmtrakRail transit


Fuel Consumption and Travel by Certificated Air Carriers in the United States, 1960-2000

0

400

800

1200

1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

Mile

s flo

wn

0

2,000

4,000

6,000

8,000

10,000

12,000

14,000

16,000

Mile

s pe

r gal

lon

Average Miles Flown Per Aircraft (thousands) Miles per gallon for domestic operations

Miles per gallon for international operations


Average Miles per Gallon Traveled by Road Vehicle in the United States, 1980-2000

0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Passenger cars

Buses

Light trucks

Heavy trucks

Average 2000

1990

1980


Average Gasoline Consumption for New Vehicles, United States, 1972-2006 (in miles per gallon)

10

15

20

25

30

35

1972

1974

1976

1978

1980

1982

1984

1986

1988

1990

1992

1994

1996

1998

2000

2002

2004

2006

Cars

Light Trucks

Average


Light-Duty Vehicles Sales in the United States, 1975-2006 (in 1,000s)

0

2,000

4,000

6,000

8,000

10,000

12,000

14,000

16,000

18,000

1975

1977

1979

1981

1983

1985

1987

1989

1991

1993

1995

1997

1999

2001

2003

2005

Trucks

Cars


Change in Average Vehicle Characteristics, 1981-2003 (in %)

0 20 40 60 80 100

Fuel Economy

Weight

Horsepower

Acceleration


Total Motor Vehicle Fuel Consumption and Travel in the United States, 1960-2005

10

12

14

16

18

20

22

24

1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005

Ave

rage

Mile

sTra

vele

d pe

r Gal

lon

400

450

500

550

600

650

700

750

800

Ave

rage

Fue

l Con

sum

ed p

er V

ehic

le (G

allo

ns)

Average Miles Traveled per Gallon

Average Fuel Consumed per Vehicle (Gallons)


Components of Retail Costs of Gasoline, United States, 1999-2005

37

53

36

19

13

19

14

9

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

1999

2005Crude oil

Federal & State taxes

Refining costs

Distribution, retail &marketing costs


Automobile Emission Factors

1

10

100

1000

5 10 20 30 35 45 55 60 70 80 85 95 100Speed (in km/hr)

Em

issi

ons

(gra

ms)

0

5

10

15

20

% o

f Veh

icle

-km

HCCONOx


Gasoline Prices, 1978-2002 Selected Countries (current dollars per gallon)

0

1

2

3

4

5

1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

Japan

France

United Kingdom

Germany

Canada

United States

China


Retail Motor Gasoline Prices in Selected Countries, 1990-2006

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006

Nom

inal

dol

lars

per

gal

lon Canada

China

Germany

Japan

United States

France

Italy

United Kingdom


Gasoline Price and Use, Western Industrial Countries, 1994

R2 = 0.7704

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

1.2

1.4

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800

Liters per person

Dol

lars

per

lite

r

United States

Portugal

Canada

AustraliaJapan


Gas Consumption Tax in the United States, 1999 (in $ per mile per gallon per vehicle)

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000

More than 22.5

Between 22.5 and 21.5










Less than 12.5


Potential Impacts of High Oil Prices on Transportation


Costs of Shipping a 40 foot Container to New York

$0

$1,000

$2,000

$3,000

$4,000

$5,000

$6,000

$7,000

$8,000

Barrel at $30 Barrel at $60 Barrel at $100

From Hong Kong

From Mexico

THE GEOGRAPHY

OF TRANSPORT

SYSTEMS

Concept 3

Transportation Pollutants and Environmental Externalities


Emissions from Freight Modes (gram / ton-km)

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2

Road

Rail

Short sea shipping

Ocean shipping

0 20 40 60 80 100 120

SO2

NOx

PM

HC

CO

CO2


Estimated Air Pollutants Emitted by Transportation in the United States, 1970-2002

0

50

100

150

200

250

1970 1975 1980 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

Particulate (PM-10)

VOC

NOx

CO


Distance Driven and Carbon Emissions, U.S. Automobile Fleet, 1970-2000

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

1970

1972

1974

1976

1978

1980

1982

1984

1986

1988

1990

1992

1994

1996

1998

2000

Mill

ion

met

ric

tons

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

4

Trill

ion

KM

Carbon Emissions

Distance Driven


120

100

0

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

110

Desert10

Broadcasting studio

Quiet room

Busy street through closed windows

Busy street through open windows

Noise level near a motorway

Busy crossroads

Lorry, motorcycle, underground train

Pneumatic drill at 1 meter

Aircraft at take off

dB (A)

Noise Levels (in decibels)


Hazmat Accidents in the United States, 1975-2005

0

10,000

20,000

30,000

40,000

50,000

60,000

1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005

Total Accidents

Property Damage (1,000s of $)

Poly. (Property Damage(1,000s of $))

THE GEOGRAPHY

OF TRANSPORT

SYSTEMS

Concept 4

Transportation, Land Use and the Environment


Land Area Consumed by the Car in Selected Countries

1.7%

0.3%

0.5%

3.5%

1.9%

2.2%

1.8%

0.6%

0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08

United States

Canada

Mexico

Japan

France

Germany

United Kingdom

SwedenTotal land used by the car per capita (Ha)

% of total land area used by the car


Current and Potential Car Fleet in India and China

8

13

513

640

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700

India

China

Millions

Vehicle Fleet Size for Industrialized Vehicle Ownership Level

Size of Vehicle Fleet (1999)


Form

Patt

ern

Inte

racti

on

s

Spatial Form, Pattern and Interaction and the Environmental Impacts of Transportation


Transportation Energy Use per Capita in Selected Cities, 1990 (in MJ)


80

40

20

60

20 60 30040 80 100

Los Angeles

Sydney

LondonSingapore

United States

Australia and Canada

EuropeAsia

Hong Kong

Chicago

HoustonPhoenix

DetroitDenver

AdelaideMelbourne

Toronto

New York

Vienna

ParisBerlin

Tokyo

Ener

gy c

onsu

mpt

ion

per c

apita

(1,0

00 m

illio

ns o

f jou

les)

Population density (people per hectare)

Transport Energy Consumption and Density in Major Metropolitan Areas, 1990


Population Density, Selected Cities, 1960-1990

0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000 9,000 10,000

Tokyo

New York

Paris

London

San Francisco

Washington

Melbourne

Hamburg

Amsterdam

Frankfurt

People per square km

19901960

Copyright © 1998-2007, Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Economics & Geography, Hofstra University....

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Transcript of Copyright © 1998-2007, Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Economics & Geography, Hofstra University....