Congress

Chapter 12

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Learning Objectives

Describe the essential role and functions of

Senators and representatives.

Identify the advantages of incumbency in the

congressional election process.

Contrast organizational styles and procedures

in the House with those in the Senate.

Identify the major leadership positions in the

House and Senate and summarize the

functions of each.

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The Representatives and Senators

The Job

– Salary of over $150,000 with retirement

benefits

– Office space in D.C. and in their home

district, and staff to fill it.

– Travel allowances and mail privileges.

– But, there’s often 10 to 14 hour days, lots

of time away from the family, and lots of

pressure from different people to “do the

right thing.”

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3

Constitutional Requirements

House of

Representatives

At least 25 yrs. Old

American citizens

for 7 years

Must be residents of

the states from

which they are

elected.

Senators

At least 30 yrs old

American citizens

for 9 years

Must be residents

of the states from

which they are

elected.

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The Representatives and Senators

The Members- 535 total:

Characteristic House Senate

Democrat 212 50

Republican 221 49

Independent 2 1

Male 376 87

Female 59 13

Lawyers 156 53

Business 159 24

Education 92 16

5

Congressional Elections

Who Wins Elections?

– Incumbent: Those already holding office.

– 90% of incumbents seeking reelection win.

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Members come mostly from

occupations with high status and

usually have substantial incomes.

Women and minorities are

substantially underrepresented.

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Congressional Representation:

Substantive or Descriptive?

Members of Congress engage in substantive

representation of their districts

– They represent the interests of groups.

Members of Congress are not descriptive

representatives

– They do not mirror the personal, politically

relevant characteristics of their constituents.

Descriptive Representation: mirroring the

personal, political & relevant characteristics

of their constituents.

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Congressional Elections The Advantages of Incumbents

– Advertising: contact with constituents

The goal is to be visible to your voters.

Frequent trips home & newsletters are used.

– Credit Claiming:

Service to individuals in their district. (2 methods)

Casework: specifically helping constituents get

what they think they have a right to.

Pork Barrel: federal projects, grants, etc. made

available in a congressional district or state.

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Congressional Elections The Advantages of Incumbents

– Position Taking: on matters of public policy when they vote

Portray themselves as hard working, dedicated individuals.

Occasionally take a partisan stand on an issue.

– Weak Opponents:

Most opponents are inexperienced in politics.

Most opponents are unorganized and underfunded.

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The Role of Party Identification

– Most members represent the majority party in their district.

Defeating Incumbents

– Some incumbents face problems after a scandalor other complication in office.

– Through redistricting, they may get drawn out of their district. (every 10 years)

– They may face massive voter retaliation.

When an incumbent is not running for reelection and the seat is open, there is greater likelihood of competition.

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Congressional Elections: Average

Expenditure by Candidates12

Congressional Elections

Money in Congressional Elections

– Open seats are expensive.

– Spending is greatest when there is no incumbent and each party feels its has a chance to win.

– In open seats, the candidate who spends the most usually wins.

– Do PACs buy candidates? Most PAC money goes to incumbents.

– Spending lots of money does not guarantee a win.

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Congressional Elections Stability and Change

– Incumbents winning provides stability in

Congress.

– But, it makes it more difficult to change

Congress through elections.

– Are term limits an answer?

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Learning Objectives

Review the four types of congressional committees

and explain how they control the congressional agenda

and guide legislation.

Outline the process by which a bill would move

through the legislative process to become a law.

Appraise the influence of the President, lobbyists, and

interest groups on the legislative process.

Examine the effect that the Congress has had on the

scope of government.

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How Congress is Organized to

Make Policy

Making Policy is the toughest of all legislative

roles.

Congress is a collection of generalists trying to

make policy on specialized topics.

– The complexity of today’s issues requires more

specialization.

Congress tries to cope with these demands

through its elaborate committee system

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How Congress is Organized to Make

Policy

The House

– 435 members, 2 year

terms of office.

– Initiates all revenue

bills, more influential

on budget.

– Limited debates.

The Senate

– 100 members, 6 year

terms of office.

– Gives “advice &

consent”, more

influential on foreign

affairs.

– Unlimited debates.

American Bicameralism

–Bicameral: Legislature divided into two houses.

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Congressional Leadership

Much of the leadership in Congress is really Party leadership.

Those who have the real power in the congressional hierarchy are those whose party put them there.

Power is no longer in the hands of a few key members of Congress who are insulated from the public.

– Today, power is widely dispersed, requiring leaders to appeal broadly for support.

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Congressional Leadership

The House

– Lead by Speaker of the House- elected by House members.

– Speaker presides over the House.

– Has a major role in committee assignments and legislation.

– Speaker’s principal partisan ally is the majority leader

Majority Leader is responsible for scheduling bills

Party Whips assist the Majority leader in getting bills passed.

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The Senate

– Officially lead by Vice President.

– Really lead by Majority Leader- chosen

by party members.

Uses the majority Whips to corral votes,

schedule floor action, influence committee

assignments.

– Must work with Minority leader, who is

the leader of the Senate’s minority party.

The Minority Leader has similar

responsibilities as the Majority Leader.

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Party Leadership

The bicameral division of Congress

means that bills have two sets of

committee hurdles to clear.

Congressional leaders do not have the

power they once had.

Leaders are elected by their fellow

party members and must remain

responsive to them.

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The Committees and Subcommittees

Most of the real work of Congress goes on

in committees & subcommittees.

Committees dominate congressional

policy-making at all stages.

They regularly hold hearings to investigate

possible problems and to investigate the

executive branch.

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The Committees and Subcommittees

– Four types of committees:

Standing committees: subject matter

committees handle different policy areas.

Joint committees: few policy areas- made up

of House & Senate members.

Conference committees: resolve differences

in House and Senate bills.

Select committees: created for a specific

purpose.

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The Committees and Subcommittees

The Committees at Work: Legislation and Oversight

– Committees work on the 11,000 bills every year.

– Some hold hearings and “mark up” meetings, where bills are revised and re-written.

– Committee members serve as “floormanagers” of the bill when it leaves committee.

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– Serve as a reference for other members.

– Oversight involves hearings and other

methods of pressuring the executive branch

into action.

– As the size of government grows, oversight

grows too.

– When the two chambers pass different

versions of the same bill, some committee

members will be appointed to the conference

committee.

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The Committees and Subcommittees

– Every committee includes members of both

parties

– The Chair and a majority of each committee’s

members come from the majority party.

– Committee Chairs are the most important

influence on the committee agenda.

Scheduling hearings

Hiring staff

Managing committee bills when they are brought

before the full House.

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The Committees and Subcommittees

– Getting Ahead on the Committee: Chairs and

the Seniority System.

The chair is the most important position for

controlling legislation.

Chairs were chosen strictly by seniority.

Now seniority is a general rule, and

members may choose the chair of their

committee.

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Getting on a Committee

– Members want to get on the right committee.

– Members want committee assignments that will

help them get reelected and gain influence.

– New members express their committee

preferences to the party leaders.

– Support of the party is important in getting on

the right committee.

– Parties try and grant committee assignments.

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Legislative Oversight

Legislative oversight is the process of monitoring

the bureaucracy and its administration of policy.

Oversight is one of the checks Congress can

exercise on the executive branch.

Oversight is primarily handled through

committee hearings.

Members of committees constantly monitor how

a bill is implemented.

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Congressional Caucuses

Caucuses: The Informal Organization of

Congress

– Caucus: A group of members of Congress

sharing some interest or characteristic.

– Caucuses pressure for committee meetings

and hearings and for votes on bills.

– Caucuses can be more effective than

lobbyists.

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Congressional Staff

Congressional Staff

– Personal staff: Work for the member. Mainly

providing constituent service, but help with

legislation too.

– Committee staff: organize hearings, research &

write legislation, target of lobbyists.

– Staff Agencies: Congressional Research

Service, General Accounting Office,

Congressional Budget Office provide specific

information to Congress.

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How A Bill Becomes Law By progressing through both Chambers of Congress

and their appropriate joint committees to the President– Each law begins with a bill, introduced in either Chamber

of Congress

– Although money bills must originate in the House

The bill is referred to an appropriate committee and sub-committee for:– Study

– Discussion

– Hearings

– Rewriting (Markup)

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Policymaking in the CongressHouse

Bill is introduced (hopper),

numbered, assigned to a

committee.

– Bill assigned to

subcommittee.

– Bill returned to full committee

– Vote: approved/rejected

Bill goes to RULES

Committee; sets terms for

debate.

– Bill debated in House

Vote taken: passed bills go

to Senate

Senate

Bill is introduced,

numbered, assigned to a

committee.

– Bill assigned to

subcommittee.

– Bill returned to committee

– Vote: approve or reject

No rules committee!

Bill is debated in the full

Senate.

– May be filibustered to death!!

Vote taken: passed bills go

to House.

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How A Bill Becomes Law When a bill is reported out to the full chamber, it is

scheduled for debate

– By the Rules Committee in the House

– By the leadership in the Senate

After the bill has been passed in each chamber, it contains different provisions

A conference decision is formed to write a compromise bill

The bill is then approved by both chambers and sent to the president for signature or veto

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Conference Committee resolves differences

between House and Senate versions of a

bill.

– Compromise bill may NOT contain new

material.

Bill returned to each chamber to be voted

on – yes, or no, as is!

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Bill then sent to president where he may---

– Sign the bill (Bill then becomes a LAW)

– Vetoes the bill

Congress may override a veto by a two-

thirds vote in both the House and the

Senate.

– Bill then becomes a LAW

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The Congressional Process

Legislation:

– Bill: A proposed law.

– Anyone can draft a bill, but only members of Congress can introduce them.

– Most bills are quietly killed off early in the legislative process.

– More rules in the House than in the Senate.

– Party leaders play a vital role in steering bills through both houses.

– Countless influences on the legislative process.

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Presidents and Congress:

Partners and Protagonists

Presidents have their own agenda in

Congress

– Presidents have many resources to influence

Congress

– In order to “win” in Congress, the president

must win several battles in each house.

– Presidents have the power of veto to

ultimately influence legislation.

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The Congressional Process: President’s

Legislative Success39

The Congressional Process Party, Constituency, and Ideology

– Party Influence: Party leaders cannot forceparty members to vote a particular way, but many do vote along party lines.

– Constituency versus Ideology: Most constituents don’t know how their member voted on any particular issue. It is difficult for constituents to influence their member.

– Members of Congress are politicos, who act as trustees and instructed delegates as they attempt to be both representatives and policymakers.

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Lobbyists and Interest Groups

There are over 26 lobbyists for everymember of Congress.

– the bigger the issue, the more lobbyists will be working on it.

Lobbyists represent the interests of their organizations

– They provide legislators with crucial information

– They often give assurances of financial aid in the next campaign

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Lobbyists can be ignored, shunned and even

regulated by Congress.

Ultimately, it is a combination of lobbyists

and others that influence members of

Congress.

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A 1995 law passed by Congress requires

anyone hired to lobby members of

Congress, congressional staff members,

White House officials, and federal; agencies

to report what issues they are seeking to

influence, how much they are spending on

the effort, and the identities of their clients.

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Understanding Congress

Congress’ Dilemma:

– Combining the faithful representation of

constituents with the making of effective

public policy.

Supporters

– Congress is a forum in which many interests

compete for a spot on the policy agenda and

over the form of a particular policy.

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Critics Views:

– Wonder if Congress is so responsive to so

many interests that policy is too

uncoordinated, fragmented, and

decentralized.

Some observers feel Congress is so

representative that it is incapable of

taking decisive action to deal with

difficult problems.

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Understanding Congress

Congress and Democracy

– While it is a representative body, it doesn’t

necessarily represent the people, just their

interests.

– Congress does try to respond to what the

people want, but some argue it could do a

better job.

– Interest groups and presidents exert influence

on what Congress does.

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Reforming Congress

– Democratization- beginning in the late

1950s, more power was spread around, and

more subcommittees and caucuses were

created. Some of this has been changed in

recent years

– Representation versus Effectiveness- some

argue that Congress has too much to do, and

can’t do much of it right. But it does get

some of its work done.

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Congress and the Scope of Government

– The more policies Congress works on, the

more ways they can serve their constituencies.

– The more programs that get created, the bigger

government gets.

– Everybody wants government programs cut,

just not their programs.

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Congress and the Scope of Government

Americans have contradictory preferences regarding public policy.

– They want to balance the budget and pay low taxes, but they also support government programs.

These contradictory preferences may help to explain the pervasive ticket-splitting in national elections which has frequently led to divided government.

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Congress and the Scope of Government

Big government helps members of

Congress get reelected and even gives

them good reason to support making it

bigger.

Congress does not impose programs on a

reluctant public.

– It responds to the public’s demands for them.

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