Conceptual foundations for semantic mapping and semantic search

Conceptual foundations for semantic mapping and semantic search

Dagobert Soergel

Department of Library and Information Studies, University at Buffalo

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Cologne Conference on Interoperability and Semantics in Knowledge OrganizationCologne University of Applied Sciences

Institute of Information Management (IIM)July 19, 2010

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Hub

Water transport

Inland water transport

Ocean transport

Traffic station Water transport⊓

Traffic station Inland water tr.⊓

Traffic station Ocean transport⊓

Dewey

387 Water, air, space transportation

386 Inland waterway & ferry transportation

387.5 Ocean transportation

386.8 Inland waterway tr. > Ports

387.1 Ports

LCSH

Shipping


Merchant marine

Harbors

GermanHafen

Mapping through a Hub

Outline

• Objective: Interoperability Plus

• KOS concept hub: canonical expressions

• Examples: Knowledge base and applications

• ImplementationCanonical expressions local, hub globalKnowledge-based, computer-assisted creation of canonical expressions to represent concepts.Crowdsourcing

• Cross-language mapping and shades of meaning

• Conclusion

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Objective

Improve semantic-based search across multiple collections in multiple languages.

• Interoperability between any two participating KOS(Knowledge Organization Systems)

• Support for search, esp. facet-based search • for any collection indexed by a participating KOS• for search based on free-text or free-form social tagging

• Assistance in cataloging (metadata creation) by catalogers or users (social tagging)

• Long-range goal: Web service where a KOS can be uploaded and mappings to specified target KOS are returned

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KOS Concept Hub

• Interoperability is achieved by representing concepts from all participating KOS through canonical expressions, such as a description logic formula using atomic concepts and relationships

• The backbone of the proposed system is an extensible faceted core classification of atomic concepts together with a set of relationships

• Mapping from KOS to KOS is achieved by reasoning over these canonical expressions

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6

Hub

Water transport


Ocean transport




Dewey





387.1 Ports

LCSH

Shipping


Merchant marine

Harbors

GermanHafen


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HubTraffic station

Vehicle parking

Terminal facilities

Water transport


Ocean transport


By type of water transport



By component of traffic station

Vehicle parking Water transport⊓

Terminal facilities Water transport⊓

Dewey





387.1 Ports

LCSH/AAT

Shipping

water transport


Merchant marine

Harbors

ports

harbors


Examples from theLibrary of Congress

Classificationand the

Library of Congress Subject

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Examples from theLibrary of Congress

Classificationand the

LC Subject Headings

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L00 Transportation and trafficL10 Traffic system components

L13 Traffic facilities

L15 Traffic stations

L17 Vehicles

L30 Modes of transportation

L33 Air transport

L37 Water transport

P00 Buildings, constructionP23 Buildings

P27 Architecture

P43 Construction

R00 EngineeringR30 Acoustics

R37 Soundproofing

T70 Military vs. civilian T73 Military

T77 Civilian

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Core Classification faceted classification

HE550-560 Ports, harbors, docks, wharves, etc.

NA2800 Architectural acoustics

NA6300-6307 Airport buildings

NA6330 Dock buildings, ferry houses, etc.

TC350-374 Harbor works

TH1725 Soundproof construction

TL681.S6 Airplanes. Soundproofing

TL725-726 Airways (Routes). Airports and landing fields. Aerodromes

VA67-79 Naval ports, bases, reservations, docks

VM367.S6 Submarines. Soundproofing

= L15 Traffic stations L37 Water transport ⊓ T77 Civilian⊓

= P27 Architecture R30 Acoustics⊓

= L15 Traffic stations L33 Air transport ⊓ ⊓P23 Buildings T77 Civilian⊓

= L15 Traffic stations L37 Water transport ⊓ P23 Buildings T77 Civilian⊓ ⊓

= L15 Traffic stations L37 Water transport ⊓ R00 Engineering T77 Civilian⊓ ⊓

= P23 Buildings P43 Construction ⊓ ⊓R37 Soundproofing

= L17 Vehicles L33 Air transport ⊓ ⊓R37 Soundproofing

= L13 Traffic facilities L33 Air transport ⊓ ⊓Technical aspects

= L15 Traffic stations L37 Water transport ⊓ T73 Military⊓

= L17 Vehicles L37 Water transport ⊓ ⊓R37 Soundproofing T73 Military ⊓ ⊓Underwater 11

Aeroplanes-Soundproofing

Airports-Buildings

Buildings-Soundproofing

Ships-Soundproofing

= L17 Vehicles L33 Air transport ⊓ ⊓R37 Soundproofing

= P23 Buildings L15 Traffic stations ⊓ ⊓L33 Air transport

= P23 Buildings P43 Construction ⊓ ⊓R37 Soundproofing

= L17 Vehicles L37 Water transport ⊓ ⊓R37 Soundproofing

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LC subject headings with combinations of atomic concepts

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Hub

L17 Vehicles L33 Air transport ⊓ ⊓R37 Soundproofing

L17 Vehicles ⊓ L37 Water transport ⊓ R37 Soundproofing

L17 Vehicles ⊓ L37 Water transport ⊓ R37 Soundproofing T73 ⊓Military⊓ Underwater

LCC



LCSH


Ships-Soundproofing


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Hub

Canonical form of query

(DL formula)

User query

Free text

Combination of elemental concepts through facets (guided query formulation)

Controlled term(s) from a KOS, possibly found through browsing a KOS

Final query

(Enriched) free text query

Query in terms of a KOS

Mapping user queries




Ships-Soundproofing

[L17 Vehicles L33 Air transport ⊓ ⊓R37 Soundproofing]

[L17 Vehicles L37 Water transport ⊓ ⊓R37 Soundproofing Military]⊓

[L17 Vehicles L33 Air transport ⊓ ⊓R37 Soundproofing]

[L17 Vehicles L37 Water transport ⊓ ⊓R37 Soundproofing]

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Query:L17 Vehicles AND R37

Soundproofing

Examples fromNALT, LCSH, DDC, and SWD

• NALT National Agricultural Library Thesaurus

• LCSH Library of Congress Subject Headings

• DDC Dewey Decimal Classification

• SWD Schlagwortnormdatei

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Hub[isa] Condition [isConditionOf] Air [ca [isa] Condition [isConditionOf] Air [causedBy] Pollutant [property] Undesirable Undesirable[isa] Legal rule

[isa] Legal rule [appliedTo] {[isa] Condition [isConditionOf] Air [causedBy] Pollutant [property] Undesirable

LCSH

Air - pollution

Laws and regulations

Air – pollution - Laws and regulations

NALT

Air pollution


Air pollution ANDLaws and regulations


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Hub[isa] Condition [isConditionOf] Air [ca [isa] Condition [isConditionOf] Air [causedBy] Pollutant [prop.] Undesirable [prop.] Undesirable[isa] Legal rule

[isa] Legal rule [appliedTo] {[isa] Condition [isConditionOf] Air [causedBy] Pollutant [property] Undesirable

[isa] International treaty [appliedTo] {[isa] Condition [isConditionOf] Air [causedBy] Pollutant [property] Undesirable

[isa] Rights [appliedTo] {[isa] Condition [isConditionOf] Air [causedBy] Pollutant [property] Undesirable

DDC

363.739 2 Air pollution

340 Law

344.046 342 Air pollution [Law]

363.739 26 Air pollution rights

SWD

Luftverschmutzung

Gesetz

???

Übereinkommen über weiträumige grenzüberschreitende Luftverschmutzung

Umweltzertifikat

Soil moisture vs. Soil water

LCSH term

Soil moisture

[isa] Water [containedIn] Soil

NALT term

Soil water

[isa] Water [containedIn] Soil

Mapping LCSH ▬► NALT

Soil moisture ▬► Soil water

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Greenhouse gardening

LCSH term

Greenhouse gardening

[isa] Gardening [inEnvironment] Greenhouse [inEnvironment] Home

NALT terms

Home gardening

[isa] Gardening [inEnvironment] Home

Greenhouse

[isa] Greenhouse


Greenhouse gardening ▬► Home gardening AND

Greenhouse

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Salad greens

LCSH term

Salad greens

[isa] Green leafy vegetable [usedFor] Salad

NALT term

Green leafy vegetables

[isa] Green leafy vegetable


Salad greens ▬► BT Green leafy vegetables

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Emerging diseases

LCSH term

Emerging infectious diseases

[isa] Disease [hasProperty] Infectious [hasProperty] Emerging

NALT term

Emerging diseases

[isa] Disease [hasProperty] Infectious ??? [hasProperty] Emerging

Mapping LCSH ▬► NALT ???

Emerging infectious diseases ▬► Emerging diseases

Emerging infectious diseases ▬► BT Emerging diseases

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Hub

[isa] Worker [hasGender] Female

[isa] Worker [hasGender] Female [hasStatus] Employee

[isa] Worker [hasGender] Female [hasStatus] Employee [hasPayStatus] HourlyPay

[isa] Worker [hasGender] Female [hasStatus] Employee [hasPayStatus] HourlyPay[hasQualification] Unskilled

[isa] Worker [hasGender] Female [hasStatus] Employee [hasPayStatus] HourlyPay[hasQualification] Skilled

[isa] Worker [hasGender] Female [hasStatus] Employee[hasPayStatus] Salaried

[isa] Work BeingDone [executedBy] {Worker [hasGender] Female}

DDC

331.4 Women workers

SWD

Arbeitnehmerin

Arbeiterin

Ungelernte ArbeiterinHilfsarbeiterin

Facharbeiterin

Angestellte

Frauenarbeit


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Physician = [isa] Worker [profLevel] Doctoral [domain] Medicine

Oncologist = [isa] Worker [profLevel] Doctoral [domain] Oncology

Ophthalmologist = [isa] Worker [profLevel] Doctoral [domain] Ophthalmology

Physician ST Doctor

Ophthalmologist ST Eye doctor

Medicine BT Health care

[isa] Worker [profLevel] Doctoral BT Professional

Income ST Earnings

Income NT Compensation

Compensation ET Pay

Compensation NT Wages

Fee schedule [usedBy] {Insurance company [domain] Health care} <influences> Compensation [receivedBy] Physician

Knowledge base for query formulation

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Hub

Compensation [receivedBy] Physician

User query

Doctor's pay

Final query

(Enriched) free text query

See below

Mapping user queries

[(Physician OR Doctor OR Oncologist OR Ophthalmologist OR (Professional AND (Medicine OR "Health care" OR Oncology OR Ophthalmology))) AND(Pay OR Earnings OR Compensation OR Wages OR Income)]OR[("fee schedule" OR fee) AND ("health insurance" OR "Blue Cross" OR Medicare OR Medicaid)]

Examples from the realm of AAT Taiwan

AAT Art and Architecture Thesaurus (Getty)

AAT Taiwan TELDAP, Institute for Information Science

Academia Sinica

TGM Thesaurus of Graphic Materials, Library of Congress

E-HowNet A Lexical Knowledge Base for SemanticComposition, Academia Sinica

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Hub

Facility Worship⊓

Facility Worship Judaism⊓ ⊓

Facility Worship Christianity⊓ ⊓

Facility Worship Islam⊓ ⊓

Facility Worship Buddhism⊓ ⊓

Facility Worship Taoism⊓ ⊓

TGM

temples

synagogues

churches

mosques

Buddhist temples

Taoist temples

AAT/ Chinese

temples (buildings)

synagogues (buildings)

churches (buildings)

mosques (buildings)

禪寺

道觀


Mapping to Chinese

• Use E-HowNet formal semantic expressions

• Use terms that already exist in E-HowNet

• Add terms using computer-assisted derivation of semantic expressions as described later for English

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E-HowNet ontology 廣義知識知識本體• Building ｜建築物 Facilities ｜設施 Chinese Word: 廟 English: Temple

Conceptual expression: {facilities ｜設施 : domain = {religion ｜宗教 }}

Chinese Word: 禪寺 English: Buddhist temple

Conceptual expression: {facilities ｜設施 : domain = {Buddhist ｜佛教 }}

Chinese Word: 道觀 English: Taoist temple/ Taoist quan

Conceptual expression: {facilities ｜設施 : domain = {Taoism ｜道教 }}

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Implementation

How to get to thepromised land

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Examples of derivingcanonical expressions

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• Creating canonical expressions is key

• Start out with some examples

L00 Transportation and trafficL10 Traffic system components

L13 Traffic facilities

L15 Traffic stations

L17 Vehicles

L30 Modes of transportation

L33 Air transport

L37 Water transport

P00 Buildings, constructionP23 Buildings

P27 Architecture

P43 Construction

R00 EngineeringR30 Acoustics

R37 Soundproofing

T70 Military vs. civilian T73 Military

T77 Civilian

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Underlying faceted classification

HE Transportation

HE550-560 Ports, harbors, docks, wharves, etc.

L00 Transportation and traffic T77 Civilian⊓

Inherited: L00 Transportation and traffic T77 Civilian⊓

Added by editor:L15 Traffic stations L37 Water transport⊓

Resolved to:L15 Traffic stations L37 Water transport ⊓ ⊓T77 Civilian

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Method: Assigning atomic concepts 1

NA6300-6307 Airport buildings From database already established:

Airport = L15 Traffic stations L33 Air transport ⊓

Buildings = P23 Buildings

Added by editor T77 Civilian

Resolved to

L15 Traffic stations L33 Air transport ⊓ ⊓

P23 Buildings T77 Civilian⊓

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TL681.S6 Airplanes. Soundproofing From database already established:

Airplane = L17 Vehicles L33 Air transport ⊓

Soundproofing = R37 Soundproofing

Added by editor: Nothing

Resolved to


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Aeroplanes-Soundproofing From database already established:

Aeroplanes = Airplane [Spelling variant]

ThereforeTerm is recognized as same asAirplanes. Soundproofing

Resolved to


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Any class formed by geographical subdivision

Such as

NA6300-6307 Airport buildings

NA6305.E3 Egypt

Recognized using a dictionary of geographical names

Inherits from subject class above it; simply add the country

L15 Traffic stations L33 Air transport ⊓ P23 Buildings T77 Civilian ⊓ ⊓ ⊓

Egypt

No editor checking needed

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Distributed implementation

• Key principle:

Canonical expressions can be created locally,

The hub places each concept in a global structure

• The person or algorithm producing canonical expressions need to know only the core classification. They need not know the structure of the often large KOS to be mapped

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• Ideally, use one central faceted classification of core concepts, but multiple mapped core classifications could be used

• The central core classification is extensible and should continuously updated by many contributors

• The central core classification must be able to express shades of meaning and, in the long run, usage information

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• A KOS could assign canonical expressions to its concepts − let's call this a semantically enhanced KOS or SEKOS

• It is now a simple matter to map from any SEKOS to any other (somewhat dependent on the core classifications used)

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Efficient creation of canonical expressions

• Apply existing knowledge:Large knowledge base ▬► less effort for processing a new KOS

• Use knowledge of KOS structure for hierarchical inheritance

• Use linguistic analysis of terms and captions

• Eliminate redundant atomic concepts

• Check or produce mapping results from assignment of concepts to the same records

• Get human editors’ input and verification where needed through a user-friendly interface. Crowdsourcing, one term at a time

• KOS “owners” may verify and edit data pertaining to their KOS

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Knowledge base

Requires an ever larger classification and lexical knowledge base containing many kinds of data:

1. A faceted classification of atomic conceptsSeeded from sources with well-developed facets such as

UDC the Alcohol and Other Drug (AOD) Thesaurusthe Harvard Business Thesaurusthe Art and Architecture Thesaurusvarious systems called ontologies

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Knowledge base 2

Requires an ever larger classification and lexical knowledge base containing many kinds of data:

2. Linguistic knowledge bases such as WordNet, E-HowNet (Chinese), FrameNet, and mono-,bi-, and multi-lingual dictionaries and thesauri

3. Many KOS (Knowledge Organization Systems), such as LCC, UDC, DDC, DMOZ directory, LCSH, Schlagwortnormdatei ,MeSH and UMLS, AGROVOC, Gene Ontology

4. These will over time be fused into one large multilingual knowledge base with many terminological and translation relationships and relationships linking terms to concepts, with an increasing number of concepts semantically represented by a canonical expression. One database: Intellectual, not physical. Could be in Linked Data

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Take-home message

It is time to unify many disparate mapping efforts

on a sound semantic footing

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Dagobert Soergel

dsoergel @ buffalo.edu

www.dsoergel.com

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man -female +mature

woman +female +mature

boy -female -mature

girl +female -mature

child +/-female -mature

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beat earn gain win

an opponent x

money x x

a reputation x

a football match x

somebody in a competition x

a living x

weight x

experience x

a victory x x

an advantage x

time x

??

3. To help students distinguish between'beat', 'earn', 'gain' & 'win'

Air pollution laws

LCSH term

Air – Pollution – Laws and regulations

[isa] Legal rule [appliedTo] {[isa] Condition [isConditionOf] Air [causedBy] Pollutant [property] Undesirable}

NALT terms

Air pollution

[isa] Condition [isConditionOf] Air [causedBy] Pollutant [prop.] Undesirable


[isa] Legal rule


Air – Pollution – Laws and regulations ▬► Air pollution AND


Interpretation for indexing and searching in both directions 48

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This project will achieve the followingInteroperability between any two participating Knowledge Organization Systems (KOS) (to the extent the two schemes allow)Facet-based search

for any collection indexed by a participating KOSfor free-text search

Assistance in cataloging (metadata creation) by catalogers or users (social tagging)Long-range goal: Web service where a KOS can be uploaded and mappings to specified target KOS are returned

MeansCreate a comprehensive knowledge base relating many classification schemes and subject heading lists used in libraries and in other contexts (LCC, DDC, DMOZ directory, LCSH, European schemes).Use combinations of atomic concepts taken from a well-structured underlying faceted classification to represent the meaning of classes and subject headings.

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Why might this work

• Principled, powerful, concept-based intellectual technology.Long-established ideas revived using modern linguistic and AI methods

• Large scale creates synergy• As more KOS participate in the system, processing a new

KOS requires less effort• Unified access to mapping data from many projects

Need to talk to MACS, CrissCross, Stitch, OAEI (Ontology Alignment Evaluation Initiative), etc. about importing their mapping data

• Configured as a Semantic Web Resource

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L

• We will seed the faceted classification from many sources that have well-developed facets such as the AOD thesaurus, the Harvard Business Thesaurus (if it is made available), Art and Architecture thesaurus (some facets have mainly elemental concepts), various ontologies to be identified.Will consult CIDOC-CRM for structure

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L

• The internal data format will be rich to deal with any kind of information on concepts and terms that will be useful

• Will keep very detailed track of sources

• Will keep track of access rights

• Will import and export to any format required, especially to SKOS and OWLNote: Many of these formats are limited and will not preserve all information available in the proposed system

Koeln 20090706• Themen• Role indicators for building themes• arrangement of themes for exploration under user control• carry-over from citation order• Practical problem of connection to the participating systems – should use IDs for

combinations in Hub. Make sure that hub stays consistent with participating systems.

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E-HowNet ontology 廣義知識知識本體

• Building ｜建築物

Facilities ｜設施

Chinese Word: 廟

English: Temple

Conceptual expression: {facilities ｜設施 : domain = {religion ｜宗教 }}

Chinese Word: 禪寺

English: Buddhist temple

Conceptual expression: {facilities ｜設施 : domain = {Buddhist ｜佛教 }}

Chinese Word: 道觀

English: Taoist temple/ Taoist quan

Conceptual expression: {facilities ｜設施 : domain = {Taoism ｜道教 }}55

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Mapping Issues- 1Mapping Issues- 1 Terms related to Chinese religious concept

The word “temples” is frequently considered as an equivalent term “ 廟 miao” in Chinese. However, due to different purposes of the building and the spirit that it worships, names of religious buildings in Taiwan are varied.

Temples (buildings) (religious buildings, <religious structures>, ... Built Environment (Hierarchy Name))

Note: Buildings housing places devoted to the worship of a deity or deities. In the strictest sense, it refers to the dwelling place of a deity, and thus often houses a cult image. In modern usage a temple is generally a structure, but it was originally derived from the Latin "templum" and historically has referred to an uncovered place affording a view of the surrounding region. For Christian or Islamic religious buildings the terms "churches" or "mosques" are generally used, but an exception is that "temples" is used for Protestant, as opposed to Roman Catholic, places of worship in France and some French-speaking regions.

Q1. The mapping team has found that “temple” in AAT is broader than the concept in Chinese. Therefore it is necessary to distinguish the differences in each Chinese terms before mapping.

http://www.getty.edu/vow/AATHierarchy?find=jade&logic=AND&note=&page=1&subjectid=300011119

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Mapping Issues- Mapping Issues- 1Terms related to Chinese religious concept

Despite the similar appearance, each of them has slight difference from the others.

Miao( 廟 ): In the past, it was a place to worship ancestors. Since Han dynasty, it had been used as a place both worship ancestor and the spirits.

•ci ( 祠 ): It is built for the purpose to worship/ commemorate saints, or some famous scholars, poets, people with great achievement. Sometimes also refers to those places that worship ancestors.

• si ( 寺 ): Generally refers to a place that worship the Buddhist spirits. Sometimes it also refers to the place where Buddhist monk live.

• an ( 庵 ): used to refers to scholars’ study place ( 書齋 ). Nowadays it refers to where Buddhist nuns live.

• guan( 觀 ): only refers to Taoist building

• yan( 巖 ): refers to those miaos( 廟 ) established nearby or at mountain.

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Mapping Issues- 2Mapping Issues- 2A Chinese set term stands for broader meaning

文玩 (Wenwan)

•　　 A word combined with two words “ 文物 cultural object” and “ 古玩 antique curio”. 　 ( 文玩兼有文物與古玩的特點 )

• 　 It specifically refers to those objects used in the educated people’s reading room, including those writing equipments, small tools and decorations. ( 特指文人書齋中的書寫設備、小工具和擺飾 )

• It represents the culture of reading room, by combining the practical function of educated people’s study equipments and art crafts for people’s appreciation. ( 文玩是種書齋文化，結合了文人書生的實用器物與具觀賞價值的藝術品 )

• Common objects including: ink stones, seals, washing vessels, fine sculptured decoration…etc. “Elegant” and “exquisite” are its essential characters. ( 文玩為以下器物的泛稱 : 古硯、印章、洗器、牙雕…等，“雅” 與“巧”是其基本特徵 )

• It is produced in a highly artistic manner. Nowadays it has become popular collection that values more as an artifact than equipment. ( 以高藝術性的方式製造，現今多為賞而勿用的文房珍玩 )

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Mapping Issues- 2Mapping Issues- 2A Chinese set term stands for broader meaning

• lotus pod shaped vessel for injecting water 雙蓮房水注

• banana leaf shaped wooden plate 癭木蕉葉盤

• olive stone boat sculpture 果核小舟

• blue snuff bottle 藍地金星套料鼻煙壺

• lotus leaf shaped washing vessel 白玉荷葉式洗

• seal 鴛錦雲章循連環田黃石印

• ivory desk tidy 象牙雕山水人物筆筒

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Mapping Issues- 2Mapping Issues- 2 A Chinese set term stands for broader meaning

Q2. The mapping team has found the meaning of Wenwan is boarder than the term “desk sets”, while some part of them are equal. Therefore, the 2 terms are inexact equivalent relations. Is it more suitable to create a new term “Wenwan” in the structure, or it should be referred as desk sets?

desk sets (sets (groups), <object groupings by general context>, ... Object Groupings and Systems)

Note: Sets of matching articles intended to be used on a desk including such articles as inkstands, pen trays, and stamp boxes.


When English terms have broader meanings (1/2)EX1:

• ID: 300053660 Record Type: concept

stitching (<processes and techniques by specific type>, <processes and techniques>, Processes and Techniques)

Note: Refers to the process of fastening, joining, closing, uniting, mending, or creating ornamentation by stitches, which are the portions of thread left in fabric or another material by the in and out movement of a threaded needle through the thickness or surface of the material, or the loops of thread created on a needle in knitting or other needlework. In the context of textiles and needleworking, its meaning overlaps with "sewing." In the context of bookbinding, it refers to the fastening together a number of leaves or gatherings by passing the thread or wire through all of the sheets at once; it is distinct from "sewing," which, in the context of bookbinding, is used for the joining of leaves or gatherings together one by one by drawing thread or wire backwards and forwards through the back fold of each sheet to attach it to the cords.

縫綴 / 縫訂 (< 依特定種類區分之過程與技術 >, < 過程與技術 >, 過程與技術 )

範圍註：意指藉由針線進出穿過材料或其表面的動作，將針腳留在布料或其他材料上，或是在編織或針織時形成針目，以固定、結合、閉合、合併、修補或製作裝飾的過程。若指涉的是紡織品與手工繡品方面，則其意義與「縫紉 (sewing) 」一詞重疊。若指涉的是書籍裝幀方面，則意指將若干頁面或疊層，用線或金屬線一次穿過所有紙張固定在一起。而「線訂（ sewing ）」在書籍裝幀方面，是指用針線或金屬線，在一疊書頁的摺縫處上下穿梭，使其與裝訂線固定的方法。

In different contexts (bookbinding vs. needleworking), the meaning of stitching may change accordingly. In AAT, two kinds of meanings are explained in the same record, but when translating the term into Chinese, there will be two ways of translation, 縫合 (feng he) for needleworking and 縫訂 (feng ding) for bookbinding. The same problem occurs in the record of sewing (ID: 300053658).

Stiching in needleworking

Stiching in bookbinding


When English terms have broader meanings (2/2)

EX2:300004184 Record Type: concept

patios (<uncovered spaces>, <rooms and spaces by form>, ... Components (Hierarchy Name))

Note: Paved recreation areas adjoining contemporary houses and the paved interior courts of Spanish or Spanish-style buildings.

The term refers to two types of open spaces, so the translations could be 屋外休憩區 or ( 西班牙 ) 內院 .

Spanish patioPatio adjoining a house


When English terms have broader meanings (2/2)

EX3:

• 300266238

Record Type: concept

maculatures (<prints by process or technique>, prints (visual works), ... Visual and Verbal Communication)

Note: Prints made by taking a second impression without reinking the plate, often used for cleaning the plate. May also refer to blotting paper. Also used for scrap paper that can reinforce fabric in Medieval embroidery.

The term maculatures could be used in three different contexts (prints, blotting paper, and scrap paper) , and there are three kinds of translations ( 吸墨紙版畫、吸墨紙、固定刺繡布料的紙片 ).

Q3: In this case, since the record contains multiple meanings, it’s not a problem of which one being the preferred term, so how should the Chinese translations be displayed?

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beat earn gain win

an opponent x

money x x

a reputation x

a football match x

somebody in a competition x

a living x

weight x

experience x

a victory x x

an advantage x

time x

??

3. To help students distinguish between'beat', 'earn', 'gain' & 'win'

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man -female +mature

woman +female +mature

boy -female -mature

girl +female -mature

child +/-female -mature

Conceptual foundations for semantic mapping and semantic search

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