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Functional categories ( Coordinate conjunction, determiner, negation,particle,preposition ,subordinate conjunction)

Lexical categories ( Adjective,adverb,noun,verb,preposition)

Functional categories of a verb:

1)The verb phrase head (A verb phrase consists of a verb plus any modi ers ,complements,particle, auxiliaries, modal verbs , have and be) Ex:read,returned,have borrowed

)The predicate of a clause! (A clause is de ned as a "rammatical structure thatconsists of a sub#ect and a predicate)

$)The noun phrase modi er! (%oun phrase modi ers are de ned as words andphrases that describe a noun or a noun phrase) Ex: The woman readin" the boo&

#ust yelled at me

')The ad#ective phrase complement! (Ad#ective phrase complements are de ned asphrases and clauses that complete the meanin" of an ad#ective phrase!) Ex: ou

should be excited to study "rammar

)The verb phrase complement! (*erb phrase complements are de ned as phrasesthat complete the meanin" of a verb phrase! ) Ex: The students have to pass thetest (in nitive)

Simple Sentence contains at least one sub#ect and one predicate!

Complex Sentence is a sentence in which one of the syntactic roles is played byan embedded sentence! + made students read homs&y!

-ain sentences are said to consist of a main clause ,with a subordinate clauseimbedded into its structure !

Embedded clause is a clause (a "roup of words that includes a sub#ect and a verb) that is within a main clause, usually mar&ed by commas!

.omanian is a ne"ative concord lan"ua"e/ En"lish is a non0ne"ative concordlan"ua"e

!pes of scope of negations:

a) "ord negation (reali ed by means of ne"ative a2xes, mostly pre xes:unhappy ,disli&e

b) p#rasal negation (the ne"ation not may ad#oin to any phrase, ta&in" scopeover it!%o,not)

3e came to the party not lon" a"o, didn4t he5

c) sentence negation (a sentence is ne"ative when its predicate is ne"ated, whenits +n6ection is ne"ative)

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est #o" to see if t#e sentence is negative:

a)Ta" 7uestions! %e"ative sentences ta&e a2rmative ta"s, and vice versa:

-ary is happy about her #ob, is she5

b)%ot 8even ta" sentences re7uire a ne"ative host sentence:

9eor"e doesn4t li&e smart "irls, not even pretty ones!

c)Either con#oinin"! Two coordinated sentences can have the form 1 and either, only if the second is ne"ative!

;ac& stayed at home all day and -ary didn4t "o anyplace either!

d)%either ta"s re7uire ne"ative hosts! A2rmative sentences are followed by so0ta"s:

;ac& doesn4t li&e lin"uistics and neither does -ary

;ac& disli&es lin"uistics and so does -ary

!pes of negative sentences ( #ree classes)

a) entences where ne"ation is in the Auxiliary (<ob has lost my respect= <obabandoned his pet cat)

b) entence where ne"ation is expressed by ne"ative 7uanti ers, li&e nobody,never,nothin"! These ne"ative 7uanti ers are determiners (no) , pronouns(nobody,nothin") or adverbs (never,nowhere)

3e saw no rose0bush in the "arden= 3e saw nobody in the "arden= 3e hadnever visited the city

c) Emphatic ne"ative sentences 8 sentences where the ne"ative constituentappears to the left of the sub#ect, tri""erin" inversion!

%ever before had he seen such pretty "irls!

$egation in t#e Auxiliar!

#e $egative %rojection

En"lish sentential ne"ation can show up in two di>erent shapes: thecontracted n4t or the full form not! The two formatives spell out the content of a %e"ative ?ro#ection, %e"?, one of the functional cate"ories of the verb

-ary is not in the &itchen! -aria nu este in bucatarie!

@a&a (1 B) proposes the existence of a parameter dividin" lan"ua"esaccordin" to the relative position of %e"ation with respect to tense:

a) @an"ua"es where %e"ation is above Tense (.omanian)

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b) @an"ua"es where %e"ation is bellow Tense (En"lish)

$&t and not

$&t is an a2x of the auxiliary,incorporated into a modal or an auxiliary! Corms

such as can4t, aren4t are pulled from the lexicon as fully in6ected, and theyhave to chec& their features durin" the derivation!

0 %4t is incorporated into the auxiliary ( ouldn4t you "ive me that boo&5)

0 A second property of n4t is that it attaches to the hi"hest verbal pro#ectionof the sentence ( 3e couldn4t have been foolin" around so much)

0 A third nal property is that there can4t be two n4t items in the sentence(DD3e couldn4t haven4t been so careful)

$ot

0 Cirst, +t is not clitici ed or a2xed to auxiliary verbs

0 econdly, when auxiliaries raise to B prast the sub#ect , not must be leftbehind (not is not a head that chec&s features throu"h head0to0headmovement the way n4t does)

ould you not stay at home for a chan"e5

0%ot can appear in lower positions! how that not may be ad#oined to anyof the verbal functional pro#ections!

3e could not have been foolin" around so much/ 3e could have not beenfoolin" around so much/3e could have been foolin" around so much

0There can be two nots (3e could not have not been foolin" around somuch)

0the two ne"atives not,n4t co0occur, su""estin" that they occupy di>erentpositions! (3e couldn4t not do his homewor&)

1)%4t is an a2xal head that chec&s features with an abstract functionalcate"ory!

)%ot does not have to chec& features and does not have to be associatedto sentence ne"ation= not can be ad#oined to verbal,as well as to non0verbal pro#ections!

%ot everyone can swim/3e came here not lon" a"o!

0 in ne"ative sentences, there is a %e"? whose stron" FGne"H featuremust be chec&ed! +t can be chec&ed by head0to0head movement or it can

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be chec&ed by a speci er 8head a"reement with a ne"ative speci er! Iemay analy e not as a speci er of the %e"?! The presence of not chec&sthe feature FGne"H of the ne"ative head ma&in" the sentence ne"ative!(i!e! ne"ation has scope above tense)!%ot is a functional element!

3e should not have done it!/ hould he not have done it5/3e shouldn4thave done it/ houldn4t he have done it5

0these examples show a clear di>erence between n4t which is a>ected byhead to head movement, and not, which is not!+f n4t is a head and not is a

pec, it is predictable that auxiliaries can s&ip not, but cannot s&ip n4t!

' Support

0when the +n6ection of the sentence only contains T/ A"r and there are notauxiliary or modal verbs! 3e did not come/3e didn4t come

0the FGne"H feature is chec&ed by a lexical element that is endowed withan interpretable ne"ative feature, either the ne"ated auxiliary , or thespeci er not!

Emp#atic assertion

0extendin" the analysis to other contexts where do appears! These are7uestions, emphatic assertions, short answers:

a)Jo you &now this man5/ f course, + J &now the truth!

0a morpheme labeled A2rmative, interpreted as emphatic assertion, amorpheme which induces J 0 upport in the same way as %e"ation! Themorphemes %e" and A> are in complementary distribution!

0the emphatic assertion morpheme may be viewed as a head carryin" anabstract stron" FGa>H feature, which li&e the FGne"H feature must bechec&ed by raisin" an appropriate auxiliary verb! Any auxiliary that chec&sthe FGa>H feature will be assi"ned emphatic intonation!

0All the verbs that may chec& FGne"H, that is, modals, have, be, do, canalso chec& FGa>H:

3e + still wor&in" on the pro#ect!/ ou -A stay, that is what + was told/+J li&e your shoes!

*uestions

0.oot 7uestions and short answers are also typical environments for J 0upport:

Jid she "o5/Ihat did she sell5/ es,she did!

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07uestions are ?s, containin" a 7uestion feature and a wh0feature in B! The 7uestion feature is stron" in root 7uestions and must be chec&ed bymovin" an auxiliary verb to BK+B0to0 B

Jid she "o5

$egative +uanti ers

a) entences with ne"ative 7uanti ers are syntactically ne"ative andpass all the test for sentence ne"ation!

%obody came to the party,did they5%obody came to the party,not evenher brother!

b) These sentences must be mar&ed as ne"ative by pell0 ut, becausethey overtly show the behavior of ne"ative sentences!

c) entences with %e" 7uanti ers contain a %e"?, headed by a FGne"H

Polarity items

0 A negative sentence may be characterized not only by the existence of a negative word (suchas not or hardly,barely,etc.) but also by the existence of certain elements that, although notnegative in meaning, cannot appear in an affirmative context.

She didn’t lift a finger to help me.

She doesn’t li e our chairman at all.

!these elements that can appear only in non!assertive contexts are called negative polarity items."hey are lexical items and are sensitive to the polarity of the sentence.

!#egative polarity items are sometimes paralleled by Affirmative $olarity %tems, i.e. items thatcan appear only in assertive contexts.

$olarity items&

Any vs. some (% haven’t any money.' % have some money)

At all vs! somehow/somewhat (+ don4t li&e him at all/ + somehow li&e him)

et vs! already (+ haven4t seen him yet!/+ have already seen him)

Any more vs! still (+ don4t love you any more/+ still love you)

Either vs! too (+ don4t li&e it,either!/+ li&e it,too)

3ardly ever vs! most of the times (+ hardly ever eat caviar!/ + eat caviar mostof the times)