The writing guide

Part 1 of 6: Parts of Speech and Punctuation

Know the Basic Parts of Speech.Her ancient cat quietly sleeps beside the door.

Possessive adjective noun adverb verb preposition article noun (ownership) (modifies a noun) (thing or idea) (modifies a verb) (“action” word) (reveals location) (a, an, the)

TitlesBooks, films, lengthy poems (such as epics), and newspapers are italicized. 101 Dalmatians The Miracle Worker The New York Times

Articles, short stories, chapter titles, song titles, and poems are in quotation marks. The article “Who Has the Money?” in today’s Detroit Free Press raised some questions.

When you create a title for your essay, only other published works are marked.The Crucible: An American Test of Faith Imagery and Allusion in “The Silent Ones”

The Green Light: An Exploration of Symbolism in The Great Gatsby

Ellipsis … An ellipsis (three periods) shows that one or more words have been omitted in a quotation. If you place three periods in a row, most word processing programs will automatically space them into ellipsis form (…). Dr. Wilson believes, “We should eat less… and exercise more.”

PossessivesSingular possessive: Mr. Smith’s car is here. Mrs. Jones’ car is parked outside.

The community’s laws are fair. Thomas’ car is gray.

Plural possessive: The Smiths’ house is red. The Jones’ house is gray.The communities’ parks are shared.

An exception is made if the plural form does not end in s: the children’s playroom, The People’s Republic of ChinaMark the last item for a list possessive: Mark and Maggie’s dog sleeps most of the time.

NumbersNumbers from one to nine are usually written as words; numbers 10 and over are usually written as numerals.

Only three of the seven children are in elementary school now.Over 150 people attended the party.

If one of the sets of numbers in a sentence is 10 or above, switch all numbers to numerals.She had 7 birds last week, but she now takes care of 12.

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Use numerals for money, decimals, percentages, chapters, pages, addresses, telephones, dates, time, and statistics. Chapter 7 explains that less than 9 percent of the population invested over $50,000.

Numbers begin a sentence.Fourteen students “forgot” their assignments.

Do use the $ symbol. They received an estimate of $4,500, but the final cost was $5,700.

Colon :Among other things, a colon can be used after the greeting in a business letter, to emphasize a word or sentence, or to introduce a list.Dear Customer Service Manager:Colette enjoys several activities: dancing, jogging, reading, and cooking. One popular theme pervades many American television programs: violence.

Semicolon ;A semicolon joins two or more independent clauses not connected with a conjunction.Semicolons join two independent clauses in a compound sentence—when the clauses are connected by a conjunctive adverb. (Common conjunctive adverbs are also, as a result, besides, for example, however, furthermore, instead, meanwhile, moreover, nevertheless, then, and therefore.)Generally, the first clause makes a general claim or assertion and the clause after the semicolon refines, qualifies, or clarifies the first statement.The new textbook is great; however, the publisher did not mention that it weighs 8 lbs.Her car choice was unexpected; no one thought Mrs. West would buy an orange Porsche

The Comma ,Commas can connect two independent clauses joined by FANBOYS (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so). An independent clause is a clause that can stand alone, a sentence. They enjoyed the play, and they decided to watch it again. They enjoyed the play and decided to watch it again. (Notice why no commas are needed.)

Commas separate phrases, adjectives, words, or clauses in a series.I came into school early, made up a test, and edited an essay.Her large, friendly, and loud puppy walked slowly down the street.

Commas enclose an explanatory word or nonessential phrase in a sentence:Bentley Brothers, the new sports store in town, sells jackets and ski boots.Julia, who plays golf well, is my sister. The girl who plays golf well is my sister.

Commas separate a long modifying phrase, a sentence beginning with a dependent clause, and some transitions:Although Lydia pretended she disliked Tom, we all knew she had a crush on him.However, few people noticed that Kate’s hair was orange.During their winter break, they played in the snow.

Sentences with the dependent clause at the end do not need a comma:They played in the snow during their winter break. (Contrast with the sentence above.)

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Part 2 of 6: Word Snags

Below are brief explanations of commonly misused words. Your writing should be free of these snags.

Accept or ExceptTo accept is to receive. To except is to reject or omit. (You’re “X”ing something out.)Greg will accept the trophy on behalf of his injured brother.I invited everyone except Virgil, who is arrogant and rude.

Affect or effectAffect (to alter) is almost always used as a verb. Effect is almost always a noun. A good memory device: “To affect is to have an effect on something.”The ice storm had no effect on us, but it will affect when I plant my garden in the spring.

When occasionally used as a verb, effect means “to bring about.”The mayor effected many changes during her first term in office.

Among or BetweenBetween connects two people or ideas. Among connects three or more.Between you and me, I think that car looks great. It is definitely among the finest I’ve seen.

Amount or NumberAmount is used for items that cannot be quantified (given a specific number). Number is used for items that can be quantified.I need a large amount of flour for this recipe. It requires a number of cups.The amount of traffic is awful. I cannot believe the number of cars.

Can or MayCan describes ability, while may refers to permission.The toddler said, “I can dress myself.” The student asked, “May I go to my locker?”

Cause or BecauseCause is a noun. Because is a conjunction.The play was cancelled because the stage lights went out. No one has determined the cause.

Defiantly or DefinitelyDefiantly means rebelliously or boldly. Definitely means certainly or absolutely. Look at the adjective roots for these words to discern the difference. Aunt Julia will definitely bake her blueberry pie for the fair competition. In spite of his neighbors’ repeated requests, Mr. Johnson defiantly operated his loud leaf blower every morning.

Desert/DessertDesert, as a noun, is the hot, sandy place. To desert (v) is to flee or abandon.Dessert, on the other hand, is the after-meal treat.I would never desert you before dessert. The desert stretched for miles.

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1 st and 2 nd person. Some writing initiatives encourage you to include your opinion, but formal writing usually avoids 1st person (I, my, we) and 2nd person (you, your). In research essays, the writer develops an opinion and defends it based on the facts s/he has uncovered.Think about it. Which statement below is more powerful? I think the policy should be changed . . . or . . . The policy should be changed.

Good or WellGood is an adjective. Well is an adverb.Beth is a good student. She performed quite well on her exam.She’s also a good tennis player. She played well in last week’s tournament.

Helping Verb + HaveHe should of edited his essay. He should have edited his essay. He also should have noticed that “should of” makes no sense.

It’s or ItsIt’s important to note the difference between it’s and its:

It’s = it is Its= belonging to it. Ex: It’s an expensive building, but its design will save money in the long run.

Lay or Lie Lay means to place. Lay is a transitive verb (is followed by an object).Today I lay a book on the table. Yesterday I laid . . . I have laid many books . . .

Lie means to recline. Lie is an intransitive verb (an action complete in itself).The cat lies down. It lay down yesterday. It has lain down before.

Less or FewerIf it can be counted individually, use fewer. If it cannot be individually counted, use less. Fewer stoplights, Less traffic. Fewer cups of coffee, less tea. Fewer arguments, less controversy.

Lose or LooseYou will lose (verb) those coins if your pants are too loose (adjective).

Passive voiceA sentence in passive voice indicates that the subject of the verb is being acted upon. It is usually boring and often confusing; the reader doesn’t know who or what is doing the action. Avoid passive voice and select vivid verbs. It is widely believed. . . Many people believe . . . The decision was delayed until. . . A panel of judges delayed the decision until . . .

Quote or QuotationQuote is a verb. Quotation is a noun.May I quote you on that? I like the quotation you chose for your personal profile.

Real or Really Real, an adjective, means genuine. Really, an adverb, can mean truly or indeed.Lydia’s blouse is really attractive. Is it made of real silk?

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Than or ThenThen tells when. We will eat out then go to soccer practice. Than is for comparison. I would rather eat here than at the other restaurant.

That or WhichThat should be used to introduce a restrictive clause. Which should be used to introduce an essential or non-essential clause. An essential clause is one which is vital to the meaning of a sentence – if it’s removed, the meaning of the sentence will change. For example:

Cars that don’t have air bags are increasingly rare. The painting that hangs in the lobby is still for sale.

A non-essential clause can be left out without changing the meaning of a sentence. Non-essential clauses are either in brackets or have a comma before and after them (or only before them if they come at the end of a sentence):

His car, which he bought last summer, is dark blue. I sat on an uncomfortable chair, which was in my office. That street, which is my favorite in the Pointes, is where I grew up.

They’re, There, or TheirEx: Is the team in the locker room?

Yes, They’re in there with their coach. Their parents are waiting over there.

They’re=They are There answers the question where. Their is possessive.

Speaking of There—Avoid it.

There was a fight. A fight broke out / developed / erupted. There are several theaters in the area that… Several local theaters offer…

Threw or ThroughI accidentally threw (v., past tense) the baseball through (prep.) the window.

To, Too, TwoWe have too many students to count. These two students should go to the cafeteria. They are too hungry.

Who or WhomWho is a pronoun used for a grammatical subject, where a nominative pronoun such as I or he would be appropriate. Whom is used elsewhere, such as when him would fit.Who is at the door? The man who just left was friendly.For whom is this note? The man whom the papers criticized declined to respond.

Woman or WomenSeveral women entered the store, but only one woman registered for the grand prize.

You’re or YourYou’re (you are) in Chicago, but you left your (possessive) backpack here in Detroit.

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Also know the difference between:Allusion/illusion council/counsel By/buyBrake/break hanged/hung weather/whether

Part 3 of 6: The Effective Introduction

The opening is arguably the most important part of the communication, the place where the writer can have the greatest impact on readers. Use your opening to hook the reader and lead them to your topic.

Avoid rhetorical questions—“Have you ever noticed how lame most rhetorical questions are?” Watch out for clichés: “Since the beginning of time,” “Throughout history,” and the dreaded “The dictionary defines...” Instead, consider the following options:

Surprising fact or statisticOver the course of his life, the average American spends about 6 months waiting at red lights.

HumorThey told him he should not attempt the feat. They were right.

QuotationOscar Wilde once quipped, “I am so clever that sometimes I don’t understand a single word of what I am saying.”

Anecdote/brief accountOn June 7, 1953, Mark Dixon came home to find that his kitchen had disappeared.

Observation While traveling, few people contemplate the elements necessary for a successful flight.

One technique that writers sometimes use to remember the components of the opening paragraph is the acronym BMW. The advice below is from Ben Shank for the University of St. Thomas Executive Education Program. He applies the strategy toward business correspondence, but it works in many areas.

Component One: Background/Statement of the Reader’s ConcernThe background statement lets readers know that the writer has a clear understanding of the topic. It may also jogs the reader’s memory about what has occurred in the past to result in this communication.

Component Two: The Main Point (What)This sentence clearly communicates the key idea of this communication – what the writer needs to relay to the reader.

Component Three: WIFR (What’s in it for the reader?)This statement tells the reader the incentive – why the reader should read the communication. It focuses on what the reader will learn that will benefit the reader.

B BackgroundM Main PointW What’s in it for the reader (WIFR)

Example from business correspondence:(B) In your recent letter, you asked about the cash value of your insurance policies with Federated Insurance. (M) I have attached a list of your policies and the case value of each one. (W) To obtain the cash values, you should follow the steps described below.

Example from a research essay:(B) 19th century author and political figure Thomas Wentworth is not well known by most contemporary readers. (M) However, his most famous work, Across the Oceans, vividly describes his experiences as a colonial governor in several parts of the world, frankly recounting the successes and failures of British imperialism. (W) As a detailed first-hand

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account, Across the Oceans offers students of British colonial history a better understanding of the attitudes and ideals of British colonizers.

Part 4 of 6: Style Development

Vivid Words + Varied Structure + Varied Length = Powerful Sentences.

A lot of people… Many people realize that, in writing, less is often more.

He is famous in that he produces movies. He is famous because he produces movies.

In the account, it claims that . . . The account claims that . . .

She does a good job setting up her characters She vividly describes . . .

Repetitive transitions, bland adjectives, and choppy sentences are BORING. They also make your teachers want to cry, so edit carefully. Before editing: The house was very nice. It had several really big rooms. It had a remodeled kitchen. The kitchen had cabinets made of hickory. After editing: The impressive home contained several large rooms, including a remodeled kitchen with hickory cabinets.

The best writers are re-writers. Consider the following approaches as you compose and edit your composition:

The “Read-Aloud”: It may sound corny, but I strongly encourage you to read your essay aloud. Some people use a ruler or the edge of a paper to help them move methodically through each sentence. Your mind may catch grammar/style concerns your eyes may have overlooked. If you find yourself stumbling over a sentence, mark it, and return to it later so you can craft smooth, effective arguments.

The “Second Set of Eyes”: Exchange papers with a classmate whose expertise you trust. Do not choose the friend who will merely mark your paper “Super Terrific!!!” with a border of smiley faces. Your second set of eyes can circle grammar/style concerns and highlight vague or confusing sections. You may not agree with everything your writing peer suggests, but their feedback can help you refine your response.

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Eleven Varied Ways to Begin a Sentence:

1.The subjectJim feared the upcoming exam.The team prepared for the scrimmage.

2. The adverb (an adverb describes a verb)Unfortunately, Jim has not kept up with his assignments.Rapidly, the opponents began to score.

3. The prepositional phrase (A prep. phrase describes the relationship between two objects.)Before the upcoming exam, Jim realized that he had neglected his work.During the game, Leigh realized she had played this team before.

4. The dependent adverbial clause (remember: a clause contains a subject and verb)Because he had neglected his assignments, Jim feared the upcoming exam.While they were in New Jersey, Wendy bought some tanning gel.

5. The direct object (the object being acted upon)His daily assignments Jim had neglected for weeks.Their laundry she piled on the bed.

6. The adjective phraseFearful of the upcoming exam, Jim began to study intensely.Pleased with her performance, Kate walked off the stage.

7. The present participle (has characteristics of a verb and adjective, ends in -ing)Worrying about the upcoming exam, Jim stayed up all night to study.Questioning her parents’ honesty, Sally began to doubt her belief in Santa.

8. The past participle (ends in –ed)Deprived of study time by choir practice, Jim found himself unprepared for the exam.Confronted during the reunion, Mike apologized for his bad behavior in high school.

9. The infinitive (not conjugated in number, tense or mood, usually with “to”)To keep up his grade average, Jim set up a study schedule.To pay the bills, Susan took a second job.

10. The absolute (a noun followed by a modifier)Examination time approaching, Jim set aside an hour a day for review.Their happiness blossoming, they decided to get married.

11. An appositive (a noun or noun phrase that renames another noun right beside it)

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A slacker during the semester, Jim now had to face the upcoming exam.A local family, the Algers bequeathed their house to become the War Memorial.

Connectives and Transitions to Add Variety:

ADDITIONAL FACTS (SERIES): again, also, and, another, besides, but, also, equally important, finally, first, further, furthermore, in addition, initially, in the first place, last, likewise, moreover, next, plus(Avoid the “numeric” approach to paragraphs—first, second, third, etc. It is unsophisticated and boring.)

COMPARISON (SIMILARITIES): as, as with, as though, also, by comparison, in the same way, likewise, or, similarly

CONTRAST OR CHANGE OR CONDITION: although, at the same time, by contrast, despite, either, even though, however, if, in any event, in contrast, in spite of, instead, nevertheless, neither, nonetheless, nor, notwithstanding, on the contrary, on the other hand, or, otherwise, still, unless, yet, although this may be true

PLACE: above, across, among, adjacent, below, beneath, beside, between, beyond, farther, here, in, into, nearby, nearer, on, opposite to, over, under

CAUSE OR PURPOSE: all things considered, because, for, for this purpose, if, in order to, with this object in mind, since, toward this end

RESULT: accordingly, as a result, because, consequently, for this reason, obviously, since, so, then, therefore, thus

REPETITION: finally, in brief, in essence, in other words, in short, on the whole, ultimately, chiefly

SPECIFIC EXAMPLES: a few of these are, especially, for example, for instance, in particular, to illustrate, specifically

EMPHASIS: basically, essentially, certainly, in fact, indeed, of course, truly

TIME: after, afterward, at last, at length, as soon as, presently, before, currently, finally, immediately, in the meantime, later, meanwhile, now, not long after, since, soon, then, until, when, whenever, while

AMOUNT: all, few, fewer than, greater, less than, more than, most, none, over, under, several, smaller, some

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Part 5 of 6: Editing

Mr. Cox’s Edit-o-maticMr. Cox’s Edit-o-matic™™

“”It’s super swell!”

Some students mistakenly believe that “editing” is something only their English teacher does. Not surprisingly, these students usually earn low marks because they do not attempt to refine their own writing.

Creating a well-crafted essay requires time and effort. Before you turn in an assignment, check the following areas. Not every rule will apply in every situation, but most will help you compose a smooth, powerful response.

INTRODUCTION: Did I gain the reader’s attention through an interesting hook or lead-in, such as a

powerful quotation, statistic, scenario, observation, or anecdote?

Did I provide general background on the topic and smoothly narrow the information to my thesis?

Is my thesis clear and arguable? Does it respond to the assigned task?A complex thesis is ideal—showing contrast, depth, or a cause/effect claim. Ex: “Although some critics believe Sally Morgan reached her literary peak in the 1920s, several works from the end of her life are little-known treasures.”“Because of the increasing risk from invasive species, the Great Lakes region needs tighter trade restrictions.”

BODY PARAGRAPHS: Does each body paragraph have a logical argument/idea and a clear topic

sentence or transitional phrase, a statement connecting my argument and/or other body paragraphs?Ex: “In addition to legal concerns, some critics contend that funds for the Gateway Project should be used elsewhere” or “Even though Smith’s works were often well-received, he also faced severe critics.”

Are my body paragraphs effectively organized? (Arguments build on each other, strongest point is usually last)

Do I have enough information/evidence/details/examples to support my argument and make this a healthy paragraph?

Is this paragraph becoming too long? If so, what information could/should be deleted or what argument(s) could actually be used to create a separate paragraph?

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Are my quotations appropriately embedded and cited? (Background or context on speaker/situation, quotation, connecting quotation to my larger argument/thesis. One embedded quotation in a paragraph is ideal; two is acceptable in some situations; three is a crowd—too much. )

Have I used transitions and paragraph conclusions to smoothly connect my ideas and arguments?

Have I evaluated how the information in my paragraph supports my thesis?

CONCLUSION: Did I briefly review my core arguments and restate my thesis in an interesting

way? (Never cut-and-paste the introductory statement—readers will notice!)

Did I include a summary statement, opinion, final emphasis, or “big picture” implication?

Did I include a bibliography/works cited section to give credit to any outside sources?

THROUGHOUT MY ESSAY: Have I checked spelling, capitalization, and punctuation?

Is my writing free of run-on sentences and fragments? (In general, a sentence > 20 words loses possible impact—and your reader’s interest.)

Are my sentences strong, graceful, and suitably varied in length and structure?

Is my word choice vivid and precise but not pretentious?

Did I purge my essay of: contractions? (it’s, they’re, doesn’t, etc.)

“R.I.P. words”? (there, nice, stuff, good, does a good job, interesting, very, etc., that, thing/s, issues, all in all, lastly, edge of my seat, roller coaster, paint a picture). Some of these are acceptable in moderation—most are not.

excessive “is” and “are”? Choose powerful verbs!

1st person (“I”, “my”) and 2nd person (“you”/“your”)?

transitions or words that are repeated from sentence to sentence? If two or more sentences in a row begin with the same word, consider an alternate sentence pattern.

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Part 6 of 6: Writing on Demand

ACT:The ACT scores writing on a 6-point scale, and both the ACT and SAT have similar standards. For a top ACT score of 6:

Essays within this score range demonstrate effective skill in responding to the task. The essay shows a clear understanding of the task. The essay takes a position on the issue and may offer a critical context for discussion. The essay addresses complexity by examining different perspectives on the issue, or by evaluating the implication and/or complications of the issue, or by fully responding to counter-arguments to the writer’s position. Development of ideas is ample, specific, and logical. Most ideas are fully elaborated. A clear focus on the specific issue in the prompt is maintained. The organization of the essay is clear: the organization may be somewhat predictable or it may grow from the writer’s purpose. Ideas are logically sequenced. Most transitions reflect the writer’s logic and are usually integrated into the essay. The introductions and conclusion are effective, clear, and well developed. The essay shows a good command of language. Sentences are varied and word choice is varied and precise. There are few, if any, errors to distract the reader.

SAT:The writing demonstrates clear and consistent competence, though it may have occasional errors; effectively and insightfully addresses the writing task; well-organized and fully developed using appropriate examples to support ideas; displays consistent facility in the use of language, demonstrating variety in sentence structure and range of vocabulary.

A.P. English Language & Composition:A nine-point rubric is used for the Free Response Questions in A.P. Language and Composition. A top score of 9 is a “step above” a score of 8.

9 Essays earning a score of 9 meet all the criteria of 8 papers and in addition are especially thorough in their analysis or demonstrate a particularly impressive control of style.

8 Essays earning a score of 8 effectively assess how the author accomplishes the writing style and/or techniques that the question addresses. Such essays present a carefully reasoned argument in support of their position and enlist appropriate evidence from the text that supports it. Their prose demonstrates an impressive control of the elements of effective writing, though it is not flawless.

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Score Task(Thesis)

Position(Formal Opinion)

Complexity DevelopmentOf Ideas

Focus(Consistency)

Organization(Logical Units of

Thought)

Language(Diction)

SentenceStructure(Syntax)

Conventions(Grammar,

Spelling, Usage)6 Extremely

Clear Understanding

Takes Position Offers Critical

Context for Discussion

Examines Different Perspectives

OR Evaluates

Implications and

Complications OR

Responds to Counter-Arguments

Ample Specific Logical

Elaborated

Clear Clear Logically Sequenced Integrated Transitions

Introduction and Conclusion are Well-

Developed

Good Command Precise Words

Varied Structure

Few If Any Errors Do Not Distract

Reader

5 Clear Understanding

Takes Position Offers Broad Context for Discussion

Partially Evaluates Implications and Complications

OR Responds to

Counter- Arguments

Specific Logical

Most Ideas are Elaborated

General Statements Specific Reasons, Examples, Details

Maintained Clear but predictable Logically sequenced Simple transitions Introduction and

Conclusion are Generally Well-Developed

Competent Word Choice Sometimes Varied and

Precise

Somewhat Varied

Few Errors Rarely Distracting

4 Understanding Takes Position Offers Some Context for Discussion

Some response to counter-

arguments

Adequate Some Specific

Reasons, Examples, Details

Maintained Throughout

Most of Essay

Apparent but predictable Some evidence of logical

sequencing Simple transitions Introduction and

Conclusion are Somewhat Developed

Adequate Appropriate

Word Choice

Some Variety

Some Distracting Errors

But Do Not Impede Understanding

3 Some Understanding

Takes Position Does Not

Offer Context for

Discussion

Acknowledges Counter- Argument

But Brief or Unclear

Limited Repetitious

Limited Specific Reasons and

Examples

General Topic Maintained But Specific Issue May

Not Be Maintained

Simple Little or No Logical

Sequencing Transitions are Simple

and Obvious Introduction and

Conclusion are Under Developed

Basic Control Word Choice is

Appropriate

Little Variety

Errors May Be Distracting

May Occasionally Impede

Understanding

2 Weak Understanding

May or May Not Take a

Position States Position

But No Reasons to Support It

Fails to Support Position

Little or No Recognition of a

Counter- Argument

Thinly Developed If Examples –

General and May Not Be Relevant

Repetition of Ideas

General Topic Maintained But Specific Issue May

Not Be

Some Indication of Structure

Grouping Ideas in Part of the Essay

Transitions Simple and Obvious

Introduction and Conclusion are Minimal

Simple Simple structure

Errors are Frequently Distracting

Sometimes Impede Understanding

1 Little or No Understanding

No Support May or May Not Take a Position

States Position But No Reasons to

Support it Fails to Support

Position

Minimally Developed

Excessive Repetition of Writer’s Ideas or of Ideas in Prompt

General Topic Maintained But Specific Issue May

Not Be

No Evidence of Structure No Logical Grouping of

Ideas Transitions are Rare

Introduction and Conclusion Not Present or

Minimal

More Simple Simple Errors are Frequently Distracting

May Significantly Impede

Understanding