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Summary: Chapter 1 (Civil Society and Classical Heritage)

Politically organized commonwealth (Politics creates civilization) received its first

formulation in the cities of Ancient Greece. People lived in separate spheres and complex

relations. There is the debate over human relations: Uniqueness & commonality, and

particularism & universalism.

Classical thought maintained that political power made civilization possible. Greece

couldnt live without politics; otherwise, they will be considered as barbarians. There are two

kinds of people:

Idiots: (solitary man, barbarians, slaves, women, n children) driven by personal interests.

Self-governing citizens: reasonable and guided by public action.

Plato believed that common good is discovered by public debate and action, while civic decay is

inevitably caused by private spheres.

The Danger of Private Interest

Born during Peloponesian war (430B.C- 401B.C), Plato couldnt theorized individual and

social life apart from the state. Plato knew that people lives in different spheres and its like

human body. C.S composed of different skills (division of labor). Guided by the master virtue of

reason, justice enables each part to contribute to the welfare of the whole. Thus, justice requires

understanding of division of labor and the consequent relation of subordination & guidance

appropriate to natural aptitudes (natural ability to do sth) of elements.

For Plato, the task of political theory was to address the twin problems of corruption and

decay. These will destroy the unity. Political disease=> injustice is strife and decay is disorder.

All of these are caused by the inability of the states constituent to perform the functions.

Unity was important for the soul as it was for the state. The unity he pursued required that

private interests and passions should be suppressed. Besides, in order to deal with corruption

effective political leadership requires knowledge & political power.

NHEAN Dalin^_^


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Plato was certain that ambition greed, rivalry, and competition are constant threats to C.S

because its difficult to control private appetites. Of course, force can control this, but finally C.S

rests on the pattern of thought. The glue that holds together soul and C.S is supplied by the

integrative power of reason. His suspicion of private passions drove Platos theory of censorship

as well. He mentions that strong effective leadership could counteract the inner force of diversity

because it could root civil society in an ethical totality. At the same time, anyone could be

guardian, even women which surprised everyone. In avoidance of civil corruption, guardians

possess no property; he/she can just depend on its citizens. His drive toward unity rested on a

single Good, which effectively erased his great insight that a coherent public life composed of

different elements required an integrative moral purpose.

The Mixed Polity

Aristotle, a student of Plato and a teacher of Alexander the GREAT, has a limited view of

political life, not a wide scope. Aristotle believes that man are good by nature (self-sufficient and

commitment to public debate). 2 observations of Aristotle are: 1) Most sovereign and inclusive

association is the polis (political institution), 2) All associations are instituted for the purpose of

attaining some good. Aristotle agreed with Plato that material is the primary basic needs of

human and the division of labor rests at the heart of civil society. He mentions that Polis is the

most inclusive and sovereign of all human association. Family and village exist only for the sake

of mere life, but the polis is for good life and is the self-sufficient & moral life. Polis is the

endpoint of all human. Of course, household and village produce private striving and inequality,

but to some extent they help to set the conditions for full realization of human potential and

ethical content of the polis.

3 sets of legitimate moral relation that Aristotle stated:

1. Master& Slave: Slavery for Aristotle was a system of household service, meaning that

slaves &masters were bound together in a network of mutual dependency that reach

deeper than domestic incompetency or laziness of the rich. Slaves contributed to the

development of the master by their labor and masters contributed to the development of

the slaves by providing moral guidance & rationality. But, the true is reversed & there is

a conflict of interest &enmity.


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2&3. Husband &wife and Parents &children:

The moral superiority of the husband over the wife & of parents over children ultimately

served the development of all in natural economy, the private sphere was about the

production of subsistence but no sale or exchange. It took the form of barter eco. However,soon there will be an accumulation of more product than needed=> private profits &

individual accumulation=> undermine C.S.

Market existed for a long but has come dominate social affair only recently. Markets

were more sufficient developed to organize C.S on their own. They would not be

independent or visible until capitalism gave rise to pursue eco. gain for its own sake. Money

is now required in the exchange of market. However, Aristotle suspected that commerce &

trade can limit the moral purpose. In order word, the pursuit of wealth destroyed the moral potential of human activities cuz it threatened to subordinates all virtue to its own

imparatives& subject them to a foreign totalizing logic. Aristotle supported the moral and

public of commonwealth (private sphere enables public life). His dominant relation is

household (slavery, patriarchy, and parental).

Plato failed to understand that people moved & have different interest but they can

accomplish to attain better life. He denied private property and family life, while Aristotle

believed that no public purpose would be served by eliminating private life altogether. He

added that all the groups of people who live together do not necessary constitute a polis. For

Aristotle, citizen is best defined as a man who lives according to the rules that makes for the

welfare of the community as a whole. The purpose of the polis is to live well, not just living.

A healthy state is a mixed polity based on the middle class and combining the rich and

the poor because the healthy state require citizens who know how to rule (The rich) n obey

(the poor) and middle class makes this knowledge possible for peers & friends to practice

since they possess reason, discipline, and moderation. Aristotles understanding of

differential civil society was considerably more sophisticated than that of Plato. Plato failed

to understand that private interest is a permanent part of human condition, while Aristotle

pointed out that politics is the master science of Good since it moderated the impact of

individual interests with the generality of common concerns.


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Civil Society and the Res Publica

Aristotle died just as the independent Greek city-states were disappearing. Doctrines of self-

sufficiency and individual well-being provided the foundation for theories of individual

autonomy, moral equality, & personal righteousness. However, self-sufficient & authenticityreplaced citizenship & public action, which led to the collapse of Rome. Individual well-

being is not disclosed in public activities anymore. All stoics agreed that human beings are

rational creatures made for social life. The whole universe is a civic community in which

everything alive shares in a harmonious unity organized by reason. Marcus Tullius Cicero

also agreed with Stoics, but he also suspected that private sphere could be dangerous. Thus,

we need to reform economically, socially, and politically. The res publica was the peoples

possession associated to respect justice & common good. Chaos of private interests and

judgments could be overcome by reason and the creation of mixed constitution. A mixed

constitution would avoid tyranny and mob rule by providing institutional safeguards to

principles of monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy. He located the Senate at the heart of the

state power since it could prevent further degeneration of the Republic. Nevertheless, Cicero

s attempt was failed. Augustus separated politics from interest through a bureaucratized

legal system. Soon, Roman notion of res publica& res private is correlative. Public law

defined common interests, specified civic duties, & regulated the relation between citizens,

while private law regulated the relations between individuals, provided legal expression to

family & property, and recognized zone of private life.

Chapter 2: Civil Society and Christian Common WealthByMalisPich

I. Pride, faith, and the state

Augustine and view on Civil Society

Augustines book: The City of God in A.D 431

- He viewed human as too weak to draw moral value for themselves.


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- The mysterious working of Holy Spirit could derive the standards of truth, beauty,

goodness, and meaning of life.

- History is the record of Gods presence in human affairs, not any products of human

mind.

- The Greeks and Romans, the ground for human happiness are the speech, deliberation,

and action in a politically organized civil society.

- Only Christian Principles could constitute the foundation for conduct of politics and the

organization of the civil society.

- The love of praise brings the human into a glorious life of the citizens.

- Augustine made a notice sentence: Glory they most ardently loved; for it they wished

to live, for it they did not hesitate to die. Every other desire was repressed by the

strength of their passion for that one thing.- 2 kinds of Cities existed, one serves for devil and one serves for god and angels. The

one, which serves the devil, represents the instability and conflict that accompany the

affairs of flesh, while the one, which serves the god, represents the unity and the peace.

- These are called the city of man, and the city of god, that it needs to coexist until the

end of the world

- Sin seems like the cancer for the human and the society. Human commit sin, and in

return they would get sin. Thus, the institution in civil society is very important that it ismade possible for the sin remedy.

- To be innocent, we must not only do harm to no man but also restrain him from sin or

punish his sin, so that either the man himself who is punished may profit from his

experience, or others be warned by his examples.

- The Church has ultimate responsibility for the civil society, which provides the safety

in a world. Church is the heart if a new universal community. Thus, the Church has to

be pure in its relation to God and to the world.

- True Church is the body of Christ and it is the most dependable defense against Sin and

to serve the human who lost in his world of sin to be back.

- To sum up, god and church is correlated, and is always greatest good for human in civil

society.


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II. The Christian Commonwealth:

Christian Commonwealth emphasizes the central roles of the god, and the gods relationship with

the human. The Pope has power to connect the relationship of human and god. The Spiritual

interests and matters of salvation were properly the affair of the church, while temporal mattersof order, peace, and justice were the part of civil government.

- State existed to give order to public affairs. The church existed to provide moral guidance to

all its members. Each power was to be supreme within its own sphere.

- Aquinas and Aristotle share slightly different ideas. Both of them mainly believe that the

policy could form a better civil society. For Aristotle, political order is the highest form of

human association because it is the work of reason, aims at the satisfaction of human needs,

and makes it possible for life live well.- *** Beast


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- He brings the standard debate about the Church and the states.

- The people pursue many goals and live in a variety of associations, but they need peace

to live a decent life at any level. Thus, only a single government can help us realize the

ethical potential of the people association.

- The political association existed before the Christ. Civil society is a natural community,

has always been a quality of settled people, and very essential to human well-being.

- The government is the independent body from Church, it does not need to answer or

derive its authority from the Church.

- Following the Christ cannot serve the model of the state.

- All priests may be subject to a single master pope for their religion only.

- The diversity of the human affairs and the existence of private property explain why

people live under the needs for the variety of political forms

2. Marsilius of Paudua:

The interests of the community could be contained within the boundaries of the secular

state (state that has no religion) that directly anticipated theories of civil society.

- State organizes the civil society so humans could live with one another with peace.

- The God intentions of no peace do not correlate with the welfare of the civil

community.

- The Church itself is created by human, and defined by political institution of the civilsociety.

- Civil society originates in the fundamental principle of human association. The world

have the requirements, as such institutions for the stabilities, and that, the Church is just

part of it.

- The state is the sovereign source of law, it defines and constitutes the Church, and it is

to be obeyed because it is itself the expression of justice.

- The civil society is compiled by many different spheres, as the human has different

reasons to perform their own interest. Thus, the popes and their followers could not

claim their own authority to organize the public life.


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Chapter 3: Civil Society and the Transition to Modernity

byRatanakHoeun

I. Machiavelli

y At that time, almost everywhere the medieval structure of corporations and representation

was decaying and collapsing. Then, the monarchy system started to rise as monarchies

learned how to exploit natural resources, expand trade, wage war, and conduct foreign

relations. That is the prince. Machiavelli believed the Christianity could not get involved

with a framework for political activity. Political power is independent of religion, and the

end justifies the means (realism).

y Machiavelli explained that appropriate institutions, a vigorous public life, and creativeleadership can eliminate the social conflict of clash of classes in the society.

y W hen poor and hungry, people are industrious, it means men never does thing unless they

need to do ,so with law people are good

II. Martin Luther

y 2 spheres coexisted: the sphere of God under Christ and the sphere of the world under the

state.

y Each has its own law and is independent of each other. The church has no business in

politics and a state has no business in the soul.

y For him, excluding the god, allincluding prince or peasantsare equal in terms of soul,

and of course there inequalities of bodies. Therefore, he criticized the indulgence (ex.

building the church) by the rich to pay for salvation.

y The state is to protect church, while civil society cannot because it does not have power,

domination, and authority.

III. Thomas Hobbes

y Civil society is made possible by sovereignty, is constituted by politics, and cannot be

formally distinguished from the state.


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y In the state of nature, people are equal, insecure, and alone; their drive to protect

themselves will always undermine any effort to control disintegration unless it is

politically organized.

y Civil society and state existed at the same time; without state, we would live in the state

of nature. W hen living in a state of nature, we are men. W hen living in a state, we are

subjects, but we are secure.

y Hobbes also talked very little about personal welfare. He recognized that a state should

not interfere with self-interested activities unless the civil order is threatened.

Chapter 4 The Rise of E conomic Man By: Siv E ang

y Rights, Law, and Protected SphereJohn Locke believed that humans are rational. If they own some property in the

society, they wouldnt be interested in disordering the society because they want to put

their business in peace. Therefore he established the theory of prepolitical natural right in

which he stressed on property, rights, and private desire.

John Locke criticized Thomas Hobbes for giving too much power to the state. He argued

that when the state had too much power, it would undermine the security of the people

and make civil society impossible. To Locke, civil society is created by humans to protect

their rights and property. In the state of nature, humans are given equal rights and

property, but because of these equal rights, they are afraid that their property could be

competed away by others, so they created civil society and handed their rights to it to

protect their property, but civil society doesnt have as much power as what Hobbes said

about the state.

y T he Moral Foundation of Civil SocietyAn 18 th-century Scottish Enlightenment thinker, Adam Ferguson based civil

society on a set of innate moral sentiments. He agreed that the care of private property

did contribute to the creation of civil society, but it is not the factor that makes people tie

together in the society because it symbolized the selfishness of humankinds. If the society


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failed to protect their interest, people would separate themselves from the society.

However, he argued, human tie themselves with the society not only to protect their

private interest, but it is their innate morality. He believed that altruism and generosity lie

in human mind since they are born. They dont care only about their own interest they

think that the interest of the others also affect their own interest as well. Because of this

thought, the society is full of solidarity.

Ferguson also tried to find out where those innate moralities of humankinds

derive from. He went back to the transition of humankinds from barbarianism to

civilization. In barbarianism, humans are full of desire for security and unwillingness to

commit themselves to the public, while in civilization, humans are full of morality.

Hence, Ferguson came up with the idea that this change was derived from the unintended

human actions.Ferguson also tried to explain self-sufficient market mechanism. He worried that a

society with free market could be in danger because people become individualistic and

care only about their own interest, and they would lose the sense of morality in their

mind.

y T he Emergence of Bourgeois Civil Society

Adam Smith tried to opposed mercantilism which believes that the wealth of anation depends on how much gold and silver it has. He argued that property depends on

the market, and he believed that free trade in the international economy can bring

prosperity to all. He wrote a book called T he Wealth of Nation in which he stressed on

the existence of a natural order and the benevolent effects of economic freedom.

His greatest achievement was to link the division of labor to market. He believed

that a worker, regardless of he is poor or rich, as long as he is skilled and productive, he

will be able to enjoy the convenience of life. Market allows workers to multiply their

particular skill to the economic production and regularize the mutual dependence among

them.

To Smith, civil society is a market-organized network of mutual dependence, each

individual apply his or her particular skill to the production and provide benefits to all.


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Based on the interaction of those individuals, he classified them into three social classes

organized around agriculture, manufacture, and trade.

Area Agriculture Manufacture TradeWho are they? Landlords Wage-earners Capitalists

What did they contribute to the society? Land Labor Capital

What they get from that? Rent Wage Profit

Smith was smart at creating a market-driven theory of civil society in which individuals

can pursuit their own interest and at the same time serve the interest of all.

He was famous for his theories of invisible hand and self-correcting market. He believed that market-driven societies were more efficient and fairer than mercantilist

bureaucracies. In this system, every man, as long as he does not violate the laws of

justice, is free to pursuit his own interest and the public interest. Like the market, he

added, a civil society that gives freedom to individual can correct itself without the

interference from any political authority. However, he also worried that commerce and

property could make the rich soft, narrow, and corrupt. Thats why state is still important,

but it doesnt have the arbitrary authority like Hobbes said. Adam Smith gave state only

the authority to protect the society from external danger, protect every member of the

society from injustice of every of every other member, and maintain public institution

and public work.

Chapter 5:

I. Civil Society and the E thical Commonwealth+ David Hume attacked natural law and asserted that reason and morality are in

different sphere and give different results, and theres difference between is and

ought . Hume said that the common good cant be revealed by moral reasoning, but

only the sum of individual goods. The rule of civil society cant be achieved by moral

Sophyrum


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law. Civil society is the agreement of the pursuit of private goal and mutual pursuit of

interest. Civil society is constituted by external interactions of rational seekers after

individual self-interest.

+ Immanuel Kant:

y Civil society was a moral community that required autonomous people to

subject their action to the universal ethical standards of the categorical

imperative. People know what is right without being told. Morality can be

derived from reason and used to generate a set of principles and is

independent of the influence of experiences. Moral laws are like laws of

nature and also originate outside the realm of experience. Moral freedom is a

fundamental possibility of the human condition because the rational will is

determined by its own inner lawfulness.

y Immaturity is the inability to use ones own understanding without the

guidance of another. The motto of enlightenment is Have courage to use your

own understanding. Maturity requires the freedom to make public use of

ones reason in all matters and can come to life only in the presence of others.

Private interests cannot be ignored for erased, for the human condition is

marked by a continual tension between what we want to do and what weought to do. Reasons constitutes Ought. These considerations led Kant to the

categorical imperative .

y There should be protected space- freedom as protected by the rule of law,

rights, and civil liberties- civil society reflects the common and equal moral

capacity of all its members. Kant found French revolution as the history of

signs of moral enlightenment. The people of France gave themselves the

constitution they wanted.

y People have basic right to be subjected only to laws that are capable of

receiving universal assent, and this requires publicness, no one can coerce

anyone else other than thought the public law and its executor, the head of the

state.This requires equality of opportunity, the right to vote, the rule of law,


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the separation of powers, and a constitutional government. A sphere of moral

life: The principles needed for the civil state:

1. The freedom of every member of society as a human being

2. The equality of each with all the others as a subject

3. The independent of each member of a commonwealth as citizen.

II. The Giant BroomTalking about the French revolution, its the sign that finally civil society and the

state could be organized on a rational basis. There were no longer three estates in the

French society, but the entire community and the agent of the universal values. The

abolition of feudal society directly affected the Church. Much Church property passed

to the nation. The nobility lost authority and privileges. It paved the way of the

modern state of universal citizenship and uniform laws. Soon after the revolution, the

French political structure and economic were weak, but then political structure began

to be more centralized and the economic was supervised by the political structure.

National unity was achieved through centralized administrative uniformity, a national

army, hostility to local particularism, and a single market with a uniform set of

customs and tariffs. The state was so powerful because the state was no longer

dependent on wealth, status, and other private attributes of feudalism. However, when politics was separated from economic, there was economic and social inequality of

civil society, and now seen as the sphere of private pleasure.

III. The System of Needs

The System of needs is a state of mutual dependence. The individuals work can no

longer guarantee him that his needs will be met. Needs come from the interaction of

civil society, and needs become endless. It doesnt arise within you directly, but its

suggested to you by those who hope to make a profit from its creation. Civil society

helps to maintain ethic there are three spheres of social life- the family, civil society,

and the state, which state is the fullest of freedom. The family expresses a set of

domestic duties. It consists in a feeling, a consciousness, and a will, not limited to


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individual personality and interest, but embracing the common interests of the

members generally. State must represent interests that are universal. The state rescues

humankind by transforming civil societys dependence into interdependence. Its

preservation of universality fulfills the ethical potential of civil societys

individualism, guarantees autonomy, and safeguards freedom.

IV. The politics of Social Revolution:

Marx and other European social theorists began to raise the question why the French

revolution cannot eliminate economic inequality. Marxism and liberalism share

modernitys theoretical differentiation between the state and civil society while

retaining a sense of their connections. Civil society is formulated by the sphere of

economy. Marx claims that in bureaucracy, the identity of state interest and particular

private aim is established in such a way that the state interest becomes a particular

private aim over against other private aims. No class of civil society can makes real

and human emancipation. The bourgeoisie had been able to lead the struggle against

feudalism because its demand for liberty and protection had acquired a general force

across the entire social order. The mode production of Marxism is to abolish private

property. W age, labor, production for exchange, and the accumulation of capital hadlargely resulted to the chaos of the market and social class. Socialism cannot realize

without revolution. First, the working class has to overthrow the existing power and

seize the state power. This can be done by political act- destruction and dissolution.

Next, the ultimate result is social transformation.

Chapter 6 By: Soukim

To the pre-modern theorists of civil society, economic affairs were the threats of civil society.

There are two strands of modern thought concerning civil society. The first one is that civil

society is a market-organized sphere of necessity. Hegel and Marx agreed that class, production, interest


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and competition are civil societys core. They also believe that it is a process, which creates and distribute

wealth. The second strand is that civil society is an intermediate sphere of voluntary association and

activity standing between the individual and the state. This second strand leaves economics out of sight.

The Aristocratic Republic

Montesquieu was born in 1689. He was the first generation of Enlightenment thinkers. He was

attracted to England because England seemed to have ended the century of upheaval without falling into

extreme despotism or anarchy. England divided the society into 3 categories: King, nobility, and people;

and this is shown in her institutions of Crown, Lords, and Commons.

Aristocracy said that since its power and property were independent of the will of the monarch

and the passion of the crowd, aristocracy is the only estate that could mediate between the monarch and

the crowd. This is how it justified its monopoly of the land.

The defense of intermediate associations and theory of a balanced constitution are Montesquieus

important contribution to the modern theories of CS. He distinguished 3 forms of government: a republic

- people as a whole (democracy) or certain families (aristocracy) hold sovereign power , a monarchy a

prince holds power but uses it according to the laws , and despotism a lawless corruption of monarchy

in which a prince governs alone according to his own wish. Monarchy and despotism are governed by a

prince, but stable monarchies are marked by a complicated gradation of intermediate institutions that

make the law possible. Despotism is an absolute monarchy without the aristocracys intermediate bodies.

Men are all equal in republican government (democracy) because they are everything; they are

equal in despotic government because they are nothing.

Secondary associations must be unsupported by culture and protected by law otherwise it cannot

protect the liberty. Traditional customs, manners and past examples work with a body of law to protect

the integrity of civil societys intermediate, subordinate, and dependent bodies.

Civil Society and Community

Community is the closeness of the ones you live with. Jean Jacques Rousseau claimed that man is

naturally good and it is entirely by his institutions that he is made wicked. If CS makes human evil, it can

also rescue them.


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Rousseau proclaimed that man is born free, and everywhere he is in chain. Civil society is formed

by individuals who are naturally free and potentially moral. The social order serves all the others because

it is a moral association.

American Lessons

The weakness of America was the about the state, said Tocqueville (1835). He marked America

as a strong society, but weak state, opposite of Europe. He stated this because he saw that in America, it

lack of great cities, absence of bureaucracy and tradition of decentralization, a culture of self-reliance, low

level of class conflict, geographical isolation, absence of large social inequality, and so on. Nothing is

more striking to a European traveler in the US than the absence of what we call the government, or the

administration.

Local self-rule was perfectly suited to an American culture of self-reliance. Everyone is the best

judge of what concerns himself alone, and the most proper person to supply his own wants. The township

(one level bigger than country) and the country are bound to take care of their special interests. The state

governs, but doesnt execute the law. The permanent associations that are created by law under a

townships, cities, and countries are formed and maintained by the agency of private individuals.

A brilliant achievement may bring a person with a favor of people at one stroke, but to earn the

love and respect of the population that surround you, a long succession of little services rendered and

good deeds, constant kindness, and established reputation for disinterestedness will be required. Freedom

will brings men together and forces them to help one another.

Tocquevilles theory of civil society: governments responsibility must be limited to its political

sphere. Civil society is populated by voluntary associations that pursue private matters and are not

concerned with broad political or economic affair.

W hat Tocqueville worried was that the capacity for statism, rich network of intermediate

associations, tradition of localism, and political freedom might not be enough to turn the commercial

societys isolated individuals toward the common good. Though Americans have strong local

volunteerism, it has to learn the importance of tempering the French Revolutions universalism with therecognition of local inequalities.


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Chapter 7: Civil Society and Communism By: Sunly

y In 1980s, revolution of civil society against the state was a common crisis and it

happened in Eastern Europe. The liberalists said that Marxism lack of limits on activities

from civil society and had tendency to politize very thing, and it ignored economic

matter. Thus, liberalists said that it is the reasons that Soviet collapsed.

Totalitarianism:

y Characteristic of totalitarianism is planned economy and no social activity.y Karl Marx who is the father of communism has a great project which is to criticize

bourgeois civil society. Also, he outlined the transition to socialism rather that to

communism.

y Lenin favored of building a proletarian state, and he led a successful revolution. He said

revolution can succeed when we have political and institutional foundation, but it is hard

to transform a civil society because CS consists of counterrevolution and foreign

intervention.

y During his revolution, he knew that the change of market from state-led to stateless is

easy, but it is not when he want to change the market to a planned one, so he had turned

for help from others.

y Lenin died in 1924, and mass requires for strengthening the state power and requires

government party to make social mobilization and economic development, so it led to

debates on how socialism works. Then, Stalin won by insisting that socialism could be build by active participate from both peasant and workers.

y USSR became a heavy industry and a permanent state of emergency. Its economics is

central planning and strict political control.


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y Marxist theory and Bolshevik leadership insist that communist society which did not

fully transform the CS will have a threat from counterrevolution to the government.

y Hayek:

o State needs to protect contract, but it also need to intervene in some level in

market because the markets regulation becomes more important as society

becomes more complex.

o Communist wanted a society with public control, but it was not. Many goods

are still private because they serve their own interest.

o Criticism to communism: only individuals are the solid ground for freedom, so

they are the judge of their goal. Hence, CS must organize according to individual

interests in order to fulfill the circumstances.

o He said that Keynesianism is the little brother of communismo He said free market led to economic inequality, but intervention is a threat to

liberty. To eliminate these, public decisions need to be driven by market criteria.

o He linked Aristotles autocracy to totalitarianism. There are two others scholars

name Carl Friedrich and Zbigniew Brzezinski who favored the classical theory

and modern liberalism.

o W here Hayek was attacking all planning in the W est, Friedrich and Brzezinski

were crafting a specifically anticommunist position.o Modern totalitarian: combine the power of ideology and the use of coercion.o Totalitarianism does not respect the autonomous sphere that protects individual

autonomy and private judgment. If such important institution as families,

churches, universities and arts can have some degree of autonomy, perhaps

totalitarianism was not so total after all.

y Hannah Arendt: totalitarianism has the unstable CS and mass.y Some CS is empty because its inhabitants are disconnected, and the characteristic of

leaders is isolate and lack of normal social relationship.

y The rise of movement that attempt to correct social and economic inequities with political

remedies makes Arendt and Hayek loss confident because political participation that is

not connected to the immediate pursuit of self-interest is a dangerous.


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y Totalitarian is marked by political isolation and private loneliness, and the destruction of

civil societys intermediate structures is what makes the phenomenon so invasive.

y W hile isolation concerns only the political realm of life, loneliness concerns human life

as a whole. Totalitarian government could not exist without destroying the public realm

of life and political capacities.

y Lecture on totalitarianism was introduced to Eastern Europe to rediscover CS in early

cold war, but it was failed.

y

The Self-Limiting Revolution

y By the late 1970s, CS is a sphere of autonomous, but it did not seek to challenge the state

either. Thus, the society is no longer a totalitarian state.

y Soviet Union became like other modern societies because it has some limitation on social

activities, but there are many activities allowed.

y The state was becoming less able to direct an increasingly complicated society and assert

a single hierarchy of social goals.

y Some scholars argued that there was far more for independent public activity to exist than

in the W est where they encourage the independent establishment of organization.

y Industrialization, wealth, urbanization, social peace, education, and other accomplishments brought an end to Soviet Unions incessant mobilizations.

y People can do what they like, but not politics.y The suggestion that CS could be theorized as a nonstate and nonmarket public sphere is

problematic and it is unclear of what it consisted of.

y The hope to reform CS coexist with single-party state and a socialist economy gradually

disappear.

y By the early 1980s, the self-limiting revolution of civil society against the state hadconfined itself to limiting arbitrary state power and had settled into an unstable

coexistence with a weakened but hostile political apparatus.

The Limits Are Reached

y There is a silent green between state and CS with no political movements were created.


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y State ensure that the depoliticize CS is properly function.y States must be neutral to the groups to enforce judge law.y Stalin didnt allow the establishment of association, but later on the next president allow

for depoliticized group.

y Communist society would have to organize and prioritize its demands in such areas as

housing, health care, and educat ion, but make sure that it is out of politics.

y State withdrew itself from CS, but it enforce arbitrary law to all group, so market rule

invades the CS which means CS has right to choose what they want to do.

y State rule=tell what to do. Market rule=choose what to do.y The model of communism was influenced by the model of western.y State drags countless things into politics, but not about business which means that state

has nothing to do with private matter.

y Self-organizing and self-limiting civil society separated from the state by property rights

and the rule of law would inevitably be constituted by the market.

Summary of Chapter 8 (by Thida)

Eastern European Actual existing socialism prioritized social welfare and left the economic

matter aside after the establishment of a law-governed state and the reunification of Europe.

Due to the fact that the energize people can govern over their public sphere market. For

example, in the US in February 1998, Hilary Clinton offered the economist to defend the free

market, effective gov, and intermediate association of CS to stand b/t them, but later on New

Yorks mayor intended to make his city as a civil society of people => CS supposed to limit

the intrusive state, revitalize community life and so on.

During 1950s-1960s, democracy required many political structure => totalitarianism was more

credible due to the elite can lead over mass societies in condition of social reform and political

stability.

Pluralist foundation


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David Truman : emerged from WW II, study of how interest group shaped state activity

in a period of heightened demands on political system. To him, individual is less affected

to the society, but through the various of its subdivision, or groups => interest group

impact on the governmental process by their formal structure, internal politics, quality of

leadership, and sources of cohesion. He assumed that CS is widely distribute and

decentralized and institutional neutrality to provide fair hearing to everyone. Understand

politics means understand these complex situations that we cannot describe any

administrators or individuals participation in the governmental institution, but we can

understand how they identify themselves with which they affiliate and confront. He also

identified 2regulatory device to maintain political stability:

1. Madisonian structure of multiple memberships class no longer provide a singer center,

but multiple groups as people have variety of often-competing interests.2. Overlapping loyalties unorganized interest rule of game: are guarded by elites, can be

summarized as adherence to the rule of law that loser cannot impose any violence in the

society after elections and modest social egalitarianism (believe that all people are

equally important and should have equal right and opportunities in life). Thus, it can limit

the class conflict.

Garbriel Almond and Sidney Verba: the middle of the 1960s, believe in Political

Culture that they divided it into 3main levels:

1. Parochial: low level of interest, participation, and allegiance of political activity => third

world

2. Subject: high awareness of political knowledge, but no sense or participation =>

communism

3. Participant: high in both awareness and sense of individual influence => Anglo-American Civic Culture: a pluralistic culture based on communication and persuasion, a culture of

consensus and diversity, a culture that permitted change but moderate it. =>class conflict

disappear and one learns the rule of the game one can become a productive citizen in a

polity that gives political expression to all legitimate interests.

The Commodified Public Sphere


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y Antonio Gramsci: the late 1960s, study of why European capitalism during WW

survived, while Russian Revolution failed. His main focus on Leninism towards the

circumstance of Russian CS. The Russian autocracy was vulnerable due to its relative

autonomy, and it followed the class struggle in the East W ar of Maneuver. Plus, he

focused on theory of hegemony that the strong states and CS of western Europe created

different situations from the East as they had to pay serious attention to the culture, and

ideology that supported capitalism. Integral meaning of the state

dictatorship + hegemony => direct force, domination, and the coercive institution of

political society are supplemented by the ideological hegemony the bourgeoisie exercises

over national life through the schools, private associations, and other institution of its CS.

y Max Horkheimer: German philosopher a theory of modernity - culture of industry

culture that represented a vast array of ideological commodities to passive consumer.

1. E nlightenment: free people from the dead hand of tradition, hierarchy, and superstition.

New form of technology and novel methods of organizing production were transforming

modern civilization and powerful technique of mass market.

y Herbert Marcuse: Technological rationality has become political rationality because the

organized around the commodity form, instrumental reason, and bureaucracy, advance

industrial society convert new technology into an instrument of domination, so alternative

no longer exist.y Hannah Arendt: consider the effect of economic life on CS. To her, modernity post the

threat to create mass society, which lead totalitarianism is better than Nazism and

Stalinism. She focused on 2distinctive attribute of human condition in Athen:

1. B/t private and public, household and polis that contribute to human freedom.

2. Speech and action that construct a common life.

She also illustrates the social problem that politics has become polluted by material issue

such as money and welfare. Similarly to Marx, everything was driven by economic, the

problem in mass society also because of the fault of economic structure.

Combined+Summary

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