Cognition and Cognition and Intelligence Intelligence

Find the answer to the questionFind the answer to the question

In the Thompson family there are five brothers. In the Thompson family there are five brothers. Each brother has one sister. Counting the Each brother has one sister. Counting the mother, how many females are there in the mother, how many females are there in the family? family?

Fifteen percent of the people in Topeka (the Fifteen percent of the people in Topeka (the capital of Kansas) have unlisted phone numbers. capital of Kansas) have unlisted phone numbers. You select 200 names at random from the You select 200 names at random from the phone book. How many of these people can be phone book. How many of these people can be expected to have unlisted phone numbers? expected to have unlisted phone numbers?

You have three containers that hold 127, You have three containers that hold 127, 21, and 3 ounces of water.21, and 3 ounces of water.

How can you manage to get exactly 100 How can you manage to get exactly 100 ounces in the large container? ounces in the large container?

Types of ProblemsTypes of Problems Problem Solving refers to active efforts to Problem Solving refers to active efforts to

discover what must be done to achieve a goal discover what must be done to achieve a goal that is not readily attainable.that is not readily attainable.

Three basic types:Three basic types:

1.1. Problems of inducing structure-Problems of inducing structure-

--series completion and analogy problems--series completion and analogy problems

2.2. Problems of arrangement-Problems of arrangement-

--string problems and anagrams (burst of insight)--string problems and anagrams (burst of insight)

3.3. Problems of tranformation-Problems of tranformation-

--hobbits and orcs (water jar)--hobbits and orcs (water jar)

Barriers to Effective Problem Barriers to Effective Problem SolvingSolving

Functional FixednessFunctional Fixedness: the tendency to perceive an : the tendency to perceive an item only in terms of its most common use. Young item only in terms of its most common use. Young children are less vulnerable to this trait due to less children are less vulnerable to this trait due to less experience.experience.

Example:Example: Rachel’s car breaks down while she is driving Rachel’s car breaks down while she is driving

through the desert. She is terribly thirsty. She finds through the desert. She is terribly thirsty. She finds several soda bottles in the trunk but no bottle several soda bottles in the trunk but no bottle opener. She doesn’t think of using the car key to opener. She doesn’t think of using the car key to open the bottles because of functional fixedness.open the bottles because of functional fixedness.

Barriers to Effective Problem Barriers to Effective Problem Solving: continuedSolving: continued

Irrelevant InformationIrrelevant Information: Often problems include : Often problems include information that is not necessary to the solving of the information that is not necessary to the solving of the problem. It is distracting to the solver. You must figure problem. It is distracting to the solver. You must figure out what information is relevant BEFORE solving.out what information is relevant BEFORE solving.

Example: Example: A familiar children’s riddle goes like this: As I was A familiar children’s riddle goes like this: As I was

going to St. Ives, I met a man with seven wives. Every going to St. Ives, I met a man with seven wives. Every wife had seven sacks, every sack had seven cats, wife had seven sacks, every sack had seven cats, every cat had seven kits. How many were going to St. every cat had seven kits. How many were going to St. Ives? People may think of this as a complicated math Ives? People may think of this as a complicated math problem, but in reality, only one person, the “I,” is problem, but in reality, only one person, the “I,” is headed to St. Ives. The seven wives and their headed to St. Ives. The seven wives and their respective entourages are headed the other way.respective entourages are headed the other way.

Mental SetMental Set: Also a rigid thinking problem, : Also a rigid thinking problem, mental set is when people continue to use old mental set is when people continue to use old previously successful patterns to solve new previously successful patterns to solve new problems.problems.

Example: Example: When Matt’s flashlight hasn’t worked in the When Matt’s flashlight hasn’t worked in the

past, he’s just shaken it to get it to work again. past, he’s just shaken it to get it to work again. One day when it doesn’t come on, he shakes One day when it doesn’t come on, he shakes it, but it still doesn’t work. He would be subject it, but it still doesn’t work. He would be subject to mental set if he keeps shaking it without to mental set if he keeps shaking it without checking whether it needs new batteries.checking whether it needs new batteries.

Barriers to Effective Problem Barriers to Effective Problem SolvingSolving

Unnecessary ConstraintsUnnecessary Constraints: Occurs when the solver places : Occurs when the solver places unnecessary boundaries on the problem. Sometimes you unnecessary boundaries on the problem. Sometimes you must be innovative to be able to solve the problem by must be innovative to be able to solve the problem by thinking without boundaries.thinking without boundaries.

Example: Example: Another familiar riddle goes as follows: A father and his son Another familiar riddle goes as follows: A father and his son

are driving on a highway and get into a terrible accident. The are driving on a highway and get into a terrible accident. The father dies, and the boy is rushed to the hospital with major father dies, and the boy is rushed to the hospital with major injuries. When he gets to the hospital, a surgeon rushes in to injuries. When he gets to the hospital, a surgeon rushes in to help the boy but stops and exclaims, “I can’t operate on this help the boy but stops and exclaims, “I can’t operate on this boy—he’s my son!” How can this be? If people have a hard boy—he’s my son!” How can this be? If people have a hard time answering, they may be making a false assumption. The time answering, they may be making a false assumption. The surgeon is the boy’s mother.surgeon is the boy’s mother.

Approaches to Problem SolvingApproaches to Problem Solving People employ a variety of strategies to solve People employ a variety of strategies to solve

problems.problems. Trial and ErrorTrial and Error: Involves trying possible solutions : Involves trying possible solutions

sequentially and discarding those that are in error sequentially and discarding those that are in error until one works.until one works.

Example: Example: It’s dark, and a man is trying to figure out which It’s dark, and a man is trying to figure out which

button on the dashboard of his newly rented car button on the dashboard of his newly rented car switches on the headlights. He might press all the switches on the headlights. He might press all the available buttons until he finds the right one.available buttons until he finds the right one.

Approaches to Problem SolvingApproaches to Problem Solving HeuristicHeuristic:: A shortcut; a guiding principle or A shortcut; a guiding principle or

“rule of thumb” used in solving problems or “rule of thumb” used in solving problems or making decisions. They can be:making decisions. They can be:

---forming sub goals, searching for analogies, ---forming sub goals, searching for analogies, and changing the representations of the and changing the representations of the problemproblem

Example: Example: A useful heuristic for finishing a timed exam A useful heuristic for finishing a timed exam

might be “Do the easy questions first.”might be “Do the easy questions first.”

Culture, Cognitive style and Problem Culture, Cognitive style and Problem SolvingSolving

Cross cultural differences impact on Cross cultural differences impact on people’s ability to solve problems.people’s ability to solve problems.

Witkin’s discovery of dimensions in cognitive Witkin’s discovery of dimensions in cognitive style include:style include:

Field dependence-independence refers to Field dependence-independence refers to individuals’ tendency to rely primarily on individuals’ tendency to rely primarily on external versus internal frames of reference external versus internal frames of reference when orienting themselves in space.when orienting themselves in space.

Field DependenceField Dependence

A person relies on external frames of A person relies on external frames of reference ad tend to accept the physical reference ad tend to accept the physical environment rather than try to analyze or environment rather than try to analyze or reconstruct it.reconstruct it.

Research has shown that some cultures Research has shown that some cultures encourage field dependent cognitive style. encourage field dependent cognitive style. They are agricultural, sedentary societies They are agricultural, sedentary societies and in societies that stress strict child and in societies that stress strict child rearing practices and conformity.rearing practices and conformity.

Field IndependenceField Independence Contrary to dependence, people with field Contrary to dependence, people with field

independent styles rely on internal frames of independent styles rely on internal frames of reference and tend to analyze and try to reference and tend to analyze and try to restructure the physical environment rather restructure the physical environment rather than accepting it as it is.than accepting it as it is.

These ideas tend to be promoted by These ideas tend to be promoted by Western societies educational practices and Western societies educational practices and more likely to be shown in nomadic societies more likely to be shown in nomadic societies that depend on hunting and gathering for that depend on hunting and gathering for subsistence. Also they are found in subsistence. Also they are found in societies that promote autonomy.societies that promote autonomy.

Research into Field dependence and Research into Field dependence and independenceindependence

Witkin & Goodenough, (1981):Witkin & Goodenough, (1981):Relates to diverse aspects of cognitive, emotional Relates to diverse aspects of cognitive, emotional

and social functioning with strengths and and social functioning with strengths and weaknesses.weaknesses.

In problem solving, field-independence seems In problem solving, field-independence seems better.better.

Richard Nisbett (2001) argued that people from Richard Nisbett (2001) argued that people from Eastern Asian cultures (China, Japan and Korea) Eastern Asian cultures (China, Japan and Korea) display display holistic cognitive styleholistic cognitive style that focuses on that focuses on context and relationships among elements. But context and relationships among elements. But people from Western cultures (America and people from Western cultures (America and Europe) show an Europe) show an analytic cognitiveanalytic cognitive style style that that focuses on objects and their properties rather than focuses on objects and their properties rather than context.context.

Decision Making: Choices and Decision Making: Choices and ChancesChances

Decision Making involves evaluating alternatives Decision Making involves evaluating alternatives and making choices among them.and making choices among them.

Even though people try to be systematic and Even though people try to be systematic and rational in their choices, it does not always work rational in their choices, it does not always work that way.that way.

Finding by Herbert Simon (1957) found that people Finding by Herbert Simon (1957) found that people have a limited ability to process and evaluate have a limited ability to process and evaluate information on numerous parts of possibilities. information on numerous parts of possibilities. People use simple strategies that can often result People use simple strategies that can often result in “irrational” decisions.in “irrational” decisions.

Making Choices: Selecting and Making Choices: Selecting and AlternativeAlternative

Additive strategyAdditive strategy: Compile a list of : Compile a list of attributes that influence decision making.attributes that influence decision making.

Example:Example: Choosing a college in which to attend, make Choosing a college in which to attend, make

a table with a series of attributes such as a table with a series of attributes such as cost, program of study, social life and cost, program of study, social life and location. Then attribute ratings and compile location. Then attribute ratings and compile a total and weight the factors as done in the a total and weight the factors as done in the example above.example above.

Making Choices: Elimination by Making Choices: Elimination by Aspect MethodAspect Method

People also make choice by eliminating the People also make choice by eliminating the less attractive alternatives (Slovic, 1990)less attractive alternatives (Slovic, 1990)

This method assumes that alternative are This method assumes that alternative are eliminated by evaluating them on each attribute eliminated by evaluating them on each attribute or aspect in turn.or aspect in turn.

When it lacks something required, it is When it lacks something required, it is discarded.discarded.

What do people actually use?What do people actually use? John Payne (1976) found that when decisions John Payne (1976) found that when decisions

involve relatively few options that are evaluated involve relatively few options that are evaluated on a few attributes, people tend to use additive on a few attributes, people tend to use additive strategies.strategies.

As more options and factors must be As more options and factors must be considered, people shift to elimination by considered, people shift to elimination by aspects method.aspects method.

As decision get more complex, the method As decision get more complex, the method used becomes simpler.used becomes simpler.

Taking Chances: Factors Weighed Taking Chances: Factors Weighed in Risky Decisionsin Risky Decisions

Risky decision making involves making choices Risky decision making involves making choices under conditions of under conditions of uncertaintyuncertainty. This exists . This exists when people don’t know what will happen.when people don’t know what will happen.

To weigh the decision, people figure out the To weigh the decision, people figure out the expected value of participation in the venture.expected value of participation in the venture.

However, people often behave in a manner that However, people often behave in a manner that is inconsistent with expected value (Slovic, is inconsistent with expected value (Slovic, 1988)1988)

Example: Every time a value is negative, the Example: Every time a value is negative, the gambler should expect to lose, but they gambler should expect to lose, but they continue to play.continue to play.