Clothing Technology

H. Eberle M. Hornberger R. Kupke A. MollH. Hermeling R. Kilgus D. Menzer W. Ring

VERLAG EUROPA-LEHRMITTEL · Nourney, Vollmer GmbH & Co. KGDüsselberger Straße 23 · 42781 Haan-Gruiten

Europa-Nr. 62218

Clothing Technology........ffrroomm ffiibbrree ttoo ffaasshhiioonn

Fifth Edition

001-007 Vorspann 23.10.2008 15:59 Uhr Seite 1

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Authors:

Hannelore Eberle Director of Studies Ravensburg

Hermann Hermeling Dipl.-Ing (FH), Principal Frankfurt

Marianne Hornberger Diplom-Modellistin, Lecturer Munich

Renate Kupke Senior Lecturer Stuttgart

Dieter Menzer Dipl.-Ing (FH) Nussloch

Andrea Moll Instructor Darmstadt

Werner Ring Dipl.-Ing (FH), Director of Studies Metzingen

Editor and Team Leader: Roland Kilgus, Principal, Neckartenzlingen

Fashion Drawings: Studio Salo-Döllel, Aufkirchen bei Erding

Picture Processing: Design Department, Verlag Europa-Lehrmittel, Leinfelden-Echterdingen

This book was produced according to the latest German Industrial Standards (DIN-Blätter). Conformance is strictly limitedto the DIN-Blätter. The DIN-Blätter are published by: Beuth-Verlag GmbH, Burggrafenstrasse 6, 10787 Berlin.

Ninth German Edition 2007

Print 5 4 3 2 1

All prints of the same edition are interchangeable, excepting correction of printing errors.

Fifth English Edition 2008Translation: Cotton Technology International, 27 Winnington Road, Marple, Stockport SK6 6PD, Englandhttp://www.cottontech.co.uk

ISBN 978-3-8085-6225-3

All rights reserved. This work is subject to copyright. Utilisation for any purpose other than those legally permitted must beapproved by the publisher in writing.

© 2008 Verlag Europa-Lehrmittel, Nourney, Vollmer GmbH & Co. KG, D-42781 Haan-Gruitenhttp://www.europa-lehrmittel.deCover design: Grafic & Sound, Klaus Gierden, D-50679 Köln, after an illustration by Barbara Spannagel, D-72768 ReutlingenSetting & layout: Satz+Layout Werkstatt Kluth GmbH, D-50374 ErftstadtPrinting: B.o.s.s. Druck und Medien GmbH, D-47574 Goch


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This is a vocational book, directed primarily at students of the clothing industry: cutting, sewing,and assembly for fashion and mass markets. However, it will also be found useful in courses formanagers and technologists, and as a general reference work.

A key feature of the book is its concise and compact design – a prerequisite for summarising sucha wide range of material in a single volume. Each page is complete in itself. Particular emphasishas been laid on providing a simple layout and straightforward language, which students will findeasy to grasp. Numerous colour diagrams are an effective aid to the comprehension of some ofthe more difficult topics. These coloured illustrations are a particularly useful feature of the chap-ters on Fabric Descriptions and the History of Clothing.

The book is organised largely according to the different technological sectors, but teaching re-quirements have also been kept in mind. There are eleven chapters:

Fibres, Yarns, Fabrics, Textile Finishing, Fabric Descriptions, Leather and Fur, ClothingManufacture, Organisation of Clothing Manufacture, Product Design, Product Groups,History of Clothing.

The arrangement of topics conforms to the educational guidelines and the current curricula forcourses in vocational technology in the German Federal States. An important objective of thispublication was to present the extensive body of knowledge as a coherent whole. At all stages,account is taken of the latest scientific findings and the practical experience of the industry, as wellas any relevant DIN standards.

Improvements for the 9th Edition: The sections on Textile Aftercare, Functional Clothing, Ecology,Seam Types, Health & Safety, and Fusing have been rewritten or extended according to the latesttechnical developments. Many illustrations have been enhanced by the use of colour or changedto reflect current fashion trends.

We would like to give special thanks to the companies and associations listed on page 304 for theirassistance in the clarification of questions and for the provision of pictorial material. We areespecially indebted to Sonja Langer-Korsch and Susanne Kolb-Wachtel (leather and fur), and Han-nes Döllel (fashion drawings) for their helpful suggestions.

Many clothing companies today employ offshore manufacturing. Therefore, it is useful to notethat “Fachwissen Bekleidung” has been translated into English (“Clothing Technology”) and fromthere into several other European languages. Maybe this can provide some stimulus to intra- andextra-European communication via the language of technology. The new generation will needcompetence in both language and technology to succeed in an era of global market competition.

We would welcome any suggestions for improving or supplementing the material in this book.

Metzingen, Summer 2007 Editor and authors

“Fachwissen Bekleidung” is now in its ninth edition and has been a firm favourite in the German-speaking area of Europe since it first appeared in 1989. So far as we are aware, the book is uni-que in its scope and presentation, so it was perhaps natural that a demand should arise for anEnglish-language version.

Although this English edition follows quite faithfully the general content and layout of the Ger-man, it is not always a precise translation. There are several instances in the original where thetreatment of the subject matter naturally has a distinctively central-European bias. In the English,an attempt has been made to present a more international perspective. Wherever possible, ISOor ASTM standards have been referenced rather than DIN. For an international readership, thereis always the problem of whether to use British or North American terminology. For this edition,wherever there is a conflict between the British and American traditions, the British has generallybeen selected, although the American is often acknowledged and occasionally preferred. TheGerman approach to Work Measurement has been retained, as a valid and comprehensive ex-ample of the technique. Sections 9.6 to 9.9 of Product Design have been completely rewritten forthe English edition.

Stockport, Autumn 2008 Allan Heap & Jill StevensCotton Technology International

Preface9th German

Edition

Preface5th English

Edition


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1 Fibres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

1.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

1.2 Natural Fibres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1.2.1 Cotton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81.2.2 Flax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121.2.3 Other Vegetable Fibres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151.2.4 Wool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161.2.5 Hair Fibres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201.2.6 Silk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

1.3 Man-made Fibres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

1.3.1 Composition of Textile Fibres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251.3.2 Fibre-forming Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261.3.3 Spinning Man-made Fibres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271.3.4 Natural Polymer Fibres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281.3.5 Viscose, Modal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291.3.6 Lyocell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311.3.7 Cupro, Acetate, Triacetate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321.3.8 Synthetic Polymer Fibres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331.3.9 Polyamide, Nylon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341.3.10 Polyester . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361.3.11 Acrylic, Modacrylic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381.3.12 Elastane, Fluoro, Chloro, Olefin, Vinylal . . . . . . . 391.3.13 Glass, Carbon, Metal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

1.4 Fibre Properties, Fibre Identification . . . . . . . . . . 41

1.5 Fibre Blending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

1.6 Textile Labelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

1.7 Textile Aftercare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

1.8 Functions of Clothing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

1.8.1 Basic Functions and Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . 481.8.2 Clothing Physiology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491.8.3 Functional Textiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

1.9 Ecology and the Textile Pipeline . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

2 Yarns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

2.1 Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

2.2 Spinning Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

2.2.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 602.2.2 Wool Spinning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 602.2.3 Cotton Spinning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622.2.4 Other Spinning Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

2.3 Folded Yarns, Plied Yarns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

2.4 Fancy Yarns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

2.5 Textured Yarns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

2.6 Review of Yarn Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

2.7 Yarn Numbering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

2.8 Yarn Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

2.9 Sewing Threads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

3 Textile Fabrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

3.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

3.2 Woven Fabrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

3.2.1 Woven Fabric Manufacture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 713.2.2 Principles of Cloth Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 743.2.3 Basic Weaves and Variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 753.2.4 Colour Woven Fabrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

3.2.5 Crêpe Fabrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 803.2.6 Fabrics with Three Yarn Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . 813.2.7 Fabrics with Four or More Yarn Systems . . . . . 833.2.8 Piqué Fabrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

3.3 Knitted Fabrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 853.3.1 Classification of Knitted Fabrics . . . . . . . . . . . . 853.3.2 Weft Knitted Fabrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 863.3.3 Warp Knitted Fabrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

3.4 Special Fabrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 943.4.1 Open-work Fabrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 943.4.2 Nonwoven Fabrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 953.4.3 Stitch-bonded and Tufted Fabrics . . . . . . . . . . . 97

3.5 Comparison of Textile Fabrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

4 Dyeing and Finishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

4.1 Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

4.2 Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

4.3 Coloration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1014.3.1 Dyeing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1014.3.2 Dyestuffs, Colour Fastness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1024.3.3 Printing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

4.4 Intermediate Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

4.5 Finishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1064.5.1 Mechanical Finishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1064.5.2 Chemical Finishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

4.6 Coating and Lamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

5 Fabric Descriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

5.1 Fabric Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1105.2 Commercial Names of Fabrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

5.3 Accessories, Trimmings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1315.3.1 Interlinings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1315.3.2 Linings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1325.3.3 Ribbons and Decorations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1335.3.4 Fastenings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

6 Leather and Fur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

6.1 Leather Manufacture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1356.2 Leather Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1376.3 Leather Garment Manufacture . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1386.4 Fur Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1396.5 Pelt Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1406.6 Pelt Finishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1416.7 From Pelt to Fur Clothing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

7 Clothing Manufacture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144

7.1 Equipment and Methods for Design and Cutting 144

7.1.1 Design, Pattern Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1447.1.2 Pattern Grading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1457.1.3 Making a Lay Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1477.1.4 Types of Lay Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1497.1.5 Spreading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1507.1.6 Cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1527.1.7 Preparation for Sewing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1537.1.8 Drawing and Measuring Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1547.1.9 Hand Sewing Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1557.1.10 Cutting Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156

Contents


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2

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5

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8

9

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7.2 Equipment and Methods for Design

and Cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158

7.2.1 Types of Sewing Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1587.2.2 Sewing Machines, Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1597.2.3 Construction of a Sewing Machine . . . . . . . . . . 1607.2.4 Moving Parts of a Sewing Machine . . . . . . . . . . 1617.2.5 Sewing Machine Needles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1627.2.6 Feeding Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1647.2.7 Presser Feet and Fabric Guides . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1667.2.8 Shuttles, Hooks and Loopers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1687.2.9 Stitch Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1697.2.10 Lockstitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1707.2.11 Chain Stitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1727.2.12 Multi-thread Chain Stitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1737.2.13 Overedge Chain Stitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1747.2.14 Flat Seam Stitches, Covering Stitches . . . . . . . 1767.2.15 Blind Stitching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1777.2.16 Seam Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1787.2.17 Sewing Machine Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1837.2.18 Ancillary Mechanisms for High-speed

Sewing Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1847.2.19 Automatic Sewing Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1857.2.20 Automated Sewing Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1867.2.21 Welded Seams, Seam Sealing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187

7.3 Problems in Sewing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188

7.3.1 Seam Puckering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1887.3.2 Fabric Damage, Sewing Faults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

7.4 Equipment and Methods for Pressing and Fusing 190

7.4.1 Pressing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1907.4.2 Fusing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195

7.5 Health and Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197

8 Organisation of Clothing Manufacture . . . 202

8.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202

8.2 Material Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

8.3 Industry Sectors and Product Groups . . . . . . . 204

8.4 Garment Production Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205

8.5 Method Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206

8.6 Systems and Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209

8.7 Company Structure and Organisation . . . . . . . 210

8.8 Organisational Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211

8.9 Production Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212

8.10 Work Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215

8.11 Quality Assurance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218

8.12 Use of Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220

9 Product Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223

9.1 Target Groups and Quality Levels . . . . . . . . . . . 223

9.2 Planning a Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224

9.3 Developing a Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225

9.4 Elements of Clothing Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226

9.5 Design Influences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227

9.6 Proportion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228

9.7 Control Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229

9.8 Body Types, Size Intervals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230

9.9 Size Charts, Size Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231

10 Product Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232

10.1 Underwear, Nightwear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232

10.2 Foundation Garments, Swimwear . . . . . . . . . . 234

10.3 Babywear, Childrenswear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235

10.4 Men’s Shirts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236

10.5 Workwear, Career Apparel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237

10.6 Skirts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238

10.7 Blouses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240

10.8 Dresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241

10.9 Knitted Outerwear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242

10.10 Trousers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243

10.11 Jackets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244

10.12 Coats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245

10.13 Women's Outfits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246

10.14 Men's Outfits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247

10.15 Formal Dress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248

10.16 Sport and Leisure Clothing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249

10.17 Accessories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252

11 History of Clothing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254

11.1 Chronological Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254

11.2 Fashion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255

11.3 Ancient Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256

11.4 Ancient Greece . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258

11.5 Ancient Rome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260

11.6 Germanic Prehistory and Early Times . . . . . . . . 262

11.7 Byzantine Middle Ages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264

11.8 Romanesque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266

11.9 Gothic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268

11.10 Renaissance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271

11.11 Baroque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274

11.12 Rococo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276

11.13 Neo-classicism: English Fashion,

Directoire and Empire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278

11.14 Neo-classicism: Biedermeier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280

11.15 Romanticism, Neo-rococo,

and the Victorian Era . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282

11.16 Belle Époque, Reform, Art Nouveau . . . . . . . . . 284

11.17 The Twenties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286

11.18 The Thirties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288

11.19 The Forties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289

11.20 The Fifties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290

11.21 The Sixties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291

11.22 The Seventies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292

11.23 The Eighties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293

11.24 The Nineties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294

11.25 The New Millennium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295

11.26 Glossary of Special Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298Index of Technical Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304


protein macromolecule

fibrillar bundles

bilateral structure

fibrils

scales

spindle cells

17

1 Fibres

1.2 Natural Fibres1.2.4 Animal Fibres: Wool (2)

Classification of Wool

There are hundreds of different types and breeds of sheep. They are classified according to their wool into five basic types: Fine, Medium, Crossbred, Long, and Coarse.

Construction of the Wool Fibre

The wool fibre is made of protein molecules (keratin). It is rather similar tohuman hair. The long-chain protein molecules are formed into fibrils. Thesecombine into fibrillar bundles which form the mass of the spindle cells. Thisconstruction gives the wool fibre an extraordinary elasticity. The bulk of thefibre is made from two separate components. These have different chemicalconstitutions, and they wind in a spiral around each other (bilateral structure).Moisture and temperature have different effects upon the two components,which swell to different extents, causing changes in the overall fibre shape.It is the bilateral structure which causes the fibres to be crimped; finer fibresdevelop more crimp. Heat and moisture can relax bonds between the proteinchains. The bonds are re-formed during cooling and drying, and this is thesource of the good smoothing and shaping properties of wool.

Wool absorbs moisture (is hygroscopic). It can absorb about 1/3 of its mass ofwater vapour without feeling wet. The moisture is released only slowly. In spite of the strong affinity for water of the fibre interior, its surface is waterrepellent (hydrophobic) because it is covered by an extremely thin skin, theepicuticle. This skin causes liquid water to roll up into droplets whilst allowingthe passage of water vapour.

The scales on the fibre surfaces are capable of hooking onto one another tocause felting, under the influence of water, heat, and mechanical action.

1: Model of the wool fibre

1) 1 µm = 1 millionth of a metre = 10¯6 m

Fine

Merino, Rambouillet

finest wools, 15...23 µm1)

50 … 120 mm

highly crimped

Australia, South Africa, ex USSR

fine outerwear, knitted and woven, shawls, socks

Medium, Crossbred

Southdown, Corriedale

medium fine, 24...30 µm

120 … 150 mm

normal crimp

Argentina, Uruguay

heavier, more robust, sporting clothing

Long, Coarse

Lincoln, Romney, Karakul

coarse, over 30 µm

over 150 mm

low crimp, straight

New Zealand, Great Britain

carpets, traditional furniture coverings

Wool Type

Breed (examples)

Fineness,

Diameter

Length

Crimp, Waviness

Sources (examples)

Applications

Apart from its fineness, length, crimp, and breed, wool can also be classified according to:

• Shearing: Lambswool is from the first shearing, after six months, whilst Yearling wool is from the first or second shear after10-12 months. They are fine, soft, not very strong, with fine tips. Six-month, Eight-month, Twelve-month wools are fromsheep shorn at intervals of 6, 8 or 12 months.

• Source: Australian, New Zealand, etc. Cape wool is from South Africa; Shetland is typical coarse wool from Scotland.

• Extraction: Virgin wool is from living, healthy sheep or lambs. Dead wool, Fallen wool is from sheep that have died from natural causes. Skin wool has been taken from the skins of slaughtered sheep.

• Spinning: Worsted wool is usually fine Merino, spun into fine, smooth, uniform, combed yarns. The very finest and most ex-pensive wools are made into extra-fine combed yarns designated as super 100s to super 200s. Woollens are heavier, morevoluminous yarns prepared on the woollen spinning system. Carpet wool is long, coarse wools for carpet yarns.

• Recycling: Recovered Wool is wool that has been recovered mechanically by teasing apart production waste and second-hand clothing. Recovered wool is damaged and is of low quality.

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57

1 Fibres

Label Requirements Label Requirements

1.9 Ecology and the Textile Pipeline (3)

There is a demand from some consumer groups that textile labels should give information about any potentially harmful sub-stances which may be contained in the product. In various countries, governmental or private organisations have developedsets of criteria which can be embodied in a labelling scheme to satisfy these demands. Typically, such labels guarantee that:

• no potentially carcinogenic dyestuffs have been used

• heavy metals are present in such small quantities that their concentration, when dissolved in perspiration, would be lowerthan the permitted levels for drinking water

• pesticides are present in concentrations lower than those permitted for foodstuffs

• formaldehyde shall not exceed a certain concentration

• the pH value is neutral or slightly acid (like human skin)

• textiles intended for babies and small children shall not release any dyestuff on contact with saliva.Manufacturers or distributors of textile products can apply to these organisations for the right to use promotional and marketingmaterials (labels, hang tags etc.) subject to their products being included in a stringent testing regime.

Eco-labelling

Eco-Tex Standard 100 is a labelof the Hohenstein TestInstitute, in Germany. Itguarantees that theconcentrations of potentiallyharmful chemicals shall not begreater than certain publishedvalues. Random samplesare submitted to laboratorytesting in one of a number ofassociated institutes.

The Eco-Tex Standard 1000

guarantees that the wholemanufacturing chain, includingworking conditions, effluentdisposal, environmentalmanagement, storage andtransportation, all meetcertain social and ecologicalstandards.

The Eco-Tex Standard 100

plus label guarantees that allproducts and operations of agiven manufacturer, conformto the requirements of boththe Eco-Tex 100 and 1000standards.

Ecolog is a trademark of aGerman company thatspecialises in weatherproofclothing. They have developedgarments in which everycomponent – fabrics, linings,membranes, zippers, padding,buttons – is made from purepolyester. This means that atthe end of its life, the garmentcan be reduced to polyesterchips for re-use, e.g. inbottles.

GREEN-COTTON is a trademarkof a Danish textile companyspecialising in environmentallyfriendly and socially responsibleproduction. The cotton is eithercertified “organic” or “sustainable”.It is hand-picked and containsno pesticide residues. The latesttechnology is used at all stagesof manufacture to minimiseenvironmental impacts.

NATURTEXTIL is a label of aGerman industry association. Itembodies strict ecological andsocial requirements throughoutthe manufacturing chain. Onlynatural fibres or animal productsthat have been produced understrictly organic regimes areallowed. Organic certification isrequired at all stages.

MEDICALLY TESTED is adesignation devised by a Germanresearch institute, based on aspecific series of laboratory testsbased on challenging humancells with an extract from thetextile to give an assessment of“skin tolerance”.

The EU Flower is a symbolcreated and supported by the European Union. Anymanufacturer may apply to usethe symbol to identify productsthat comply with strict eco-logical and performance criteria.The label is overseen, and the products are tested, byindependent organisations suchas Ecolabelling Denmark.


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2 Yarns

2.5 Textured Yarns

Texturing

Important Texturing Processes

Applications for Textured Yarns

Types of Textured Yarns

Flat continuous filament yarns made from thermoplastic (heat-formable) materials can be made permanently bulky by variousprocesses. This is called texturing and it results in:

• increased volume • better thermal insulation due to the enclosed air• increased extensibility and elasticity • higher vapour permeability and moisture transport• lower lustre • softer and more comfortable fabrics

Whatever the texturing process used, textured yarns can be classified into three groups:

Stretch yarns: Highly elastic yarns with a crimp extension of 150 to 300%.

Stabilised yarns: Yarns which have been given an additional setting treatment to reduce their elasticity and crimp extension.

Bulked yarns: Voluminous yarns with crimps and loops having normal extensibility and elasticity. The term bulked yarn is oftenused generally to cover all continuous filament textured yarns and bulked staple fibre yarns.

High-bulk yarns

Man-made staple fibres can also be made into bulky, voluminous yarns. Such high-bulk yarns are usually made by blendingacrylic fibres of high and low potential shrinkage. During a subsequent heat treatment, the high-shrinkage fibres contract causingthe other fibres to buckle. A similar effect can be obtained by using bicomponent fibres.

Stockings and tights (panty hose), swimwear, sportswear, outerwear, underwear, carpets, sewing and overedge stitching threadsfor extensible fabrics.

The yarn is drawn through a heated zone whilst a pre-determined, high level of false twist is inserted followedby cooling and untwisting. The heat softens the filamentsand the deformation imparted by the twist is permanent-ly set during cooling.

This is the most economical, and therefore the mostcommon process.

The yarn is fed through a turbulent air stream, created bya jet. Usually the air is cold but occasionally hot air orsteam may be used. The air jet causes entangled loops tobe formed in the filaments.

The resulting textured yarn is very bulky with permanentcrimps and loops. Can be used for non-thermoplasticfilaments.

The yarn is fed into a heated chamber where it is com-pressed. The zigzag deformations are permanently set bysubsequent cooling. The filaments can no longer lie closetogether so the yarn is bulky.

The yarn is knitted into a tube on a circular knittingmachine. The knitted fabric is heat set and thenunravelled. The shape of the knitted loops is set into theyarn, which develops a bouclé (crinkle yarn) appearance.

False-twist texturing

Air-jet texturing

Stuffer-box texturing

Knit-deknit texturing

filaments

feed rolls

heating zone

twister

delivery rolls

yarn feed

delivery rolls

air jet

entanglement zone

delivery rolls

heated stuffer box

knitting setting unravelling


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3 Textile Fabrics

3.3 Knitted Fabrics3.3.3 Warp Knitted Fabrics (2)

Multiple Guide Bar Fabrics

For most warp knitted fabrics, the basic lapping structures are used in combination. This means that more than one warp sheetand guide bar must be used.

Warp knitted fabrics have only a limited range of applications in apparel fabrics. The most important are: leisure and swimwear,foundation and lingerie, extensible linings, laces, ribbons and trimmings.

In household textiles, warp knits are used for curtains, bed clothing and furnishings. The widest use of warp knits is in technicalfabrics.

Locknit

Locknit (charmeuse) is a combinationof tricot and 2××1 plain stitches. On oneside the fabric displays distinct wales ofsmall face loops; the other side showsthe zigzag formation of the underlaps. It is made from filament yarns which givethe characteristic lustre. Applications:linings, interlinings, lingerie (Figures 1,

2, 3).

Warp Knitted Terry

This is made with an extra warp sheetof pile yarns which are caused to formloops, bound into a ground fabric.Applications include furnishings andbed sheets (Figure 4).

Warp Knitted Plush, Velour

In this case, the pile loops are cut to give a fleecy or velvet-like surface.Applications include beach, leisure andsportswear, ladies outerwear (Figure 5).

Raschel Net

Nowadays, net fabric is almost alwaysmade on raschel machines. It is a com-bination of pillar and tricot stitches. Raschel net is most popular in bridalwear (Figure 6).

Raschel Lace

Raschel lace fabrics are often made ona base of net fabric with a patternformed from inlay yarns. They are usedfor foundation and lingerie, bridal andformal wear, and as trimmings (Figure 7).

6: Raschel net 7: Raschel lace

4: Warp knitted terry 5: Warp knitted plush, velour

2: Locknit, face 3: Locknit, back

1: Locknit,schematic

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109

4 Dyeing and Finishing

4.6 Coating and Lamination

Coating

Lamination

Coating is the application of a layer of natural or syntheticpolymer to one side of the fabric, followed by fixation in acuring oven.

The polymer film can be applied directly to the fabric (Figure

1). However, if the fabric is an open one, or the material to beapplied has a low viscosity, the liquid will first be applied to acarrier paper and then transferred from there to the target fabric (Figure 2).

The coating imparts new properties to the fabric, which are acombination of the original material (woven, knitted, non-woven) and the coating (polyurethane, polyvinylchloride).

Coated textiles (Figures 3 and 4) have a wide range of usesfrom clothing to technical fabrics. In clothing uses, it isadvantageous if the coating is permeable to air and moisturevapour.

Applications

• sporting, protective, working clothing;

• highly-visible (fluorescent) clothing;

• shoe uppers, leather cloth;

• handbags and luggage;

• furniture and automobile seat coverings;

• bookbinding, maps, albums;

• window blinds, shower curtains, table covers;

• floor and wall coverings;

• conveyor belts, tarpaulins, awnings, air-supportedstructures, inflatable dinghies, textile roofing, etc.

Lamination is the superimposition and bonding of two or more fabrics, or a fabric with paper, film, or foam.

The bonding can be achieved with an adhesive (Figure 5) orby heat (Figure 6), whereby a polymer film or foam is meltedonto the surface of one fabric and then the other fabric ispressed onto it (Figure 7).

5: Adhesive lamination

polymer

blade

fabric

fabric

1: Principle of direct coating

polymer blade

fabric curing chamber

2: Principle of indirect coating

polymer

paper

curing chamber

paper collection

fabric

3: Coated fabric

4: Protective clothing

6: Foam lamination

foam

fabricflame heating

7: Foam laminated fabric


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5 Fabric Descriptions

5.3 Accessories, Trimmings5.3.3 Ribbons and Decorations

A garment is made not only from the apparel fabric but also various accessory items. These have to be chosen in such a waythat they complement the outer fabric both aesthetically, in terms of decoration, and practically, in terms of ensuring that thegarment performs as expected in its intended end use.

The manufacture of ribbons, tapes, and decorations is similar to that of textile fabrics; weaving, knitting, braiding, or nonwoventechniques. In many cases, different patterning elements are combined such as fibre and colour effects, structure and finishing.

The commercial names for ribbons often follow from the application or the structure, for example piping ribbon, velvet ribbon.Decorative ribbons (trimmings) are also used for ornamentation.

Ribbons and Tapes

Decorations

1: Trimming

2: Scalloping, Rick-rack

3: Elastic tape

4: Buttonhole tape

5: Welted tape

6: Galloon

7: Decorations

Name Features, Properties, Applications

Trimmings General name for a patterned, woven or knitted ribbon in cotton, silk, wool,or man-made fibre.

Scalloping, Narrow bowed, zigzag, or scalloped ribbon, plain or multi-coloured in Rick-rack cotton or man-made fibres for edge trimming of traditional costumes and

children's wear.

Elastic tape Highly elastic, flat, braided band containing rubber or elastomeric fibres.

Buttonhole tape Broad elastic tape with buttonholes located in the centre.

Piping Cotton or linen plain woven ribbon about 1 cm wide, used as a tailoring aidfor edges, reveres, and collars.

Moiré ribbon Cotton, silk or man-made fibre ribbon with a moiré pattern for hat bandsand bows.

Seaming tape Cotton or viscose twill woven tape for stabilising seams.

Welted tape Cotton or viscose tape with a narrow welt at the edge.

Ribbed tape Cotton, silk, or viscose tape with pronounced ribs for decoration or forwaistbands.

Velvet ribbon Cotton, silk or viscose narrow-woven velvet; sensitive to handling.

Bias binding Tape cut on the bias (diagonally) in various widths and materials, plain orpatterned, either flat or folded for use as binding.

Stamped tape Interlining tape with pre-stamped marks to show sewing width and seamallowance. Aids more efficient working.

Taffeta ribbon Filament yarn ribbon, plain or check patterned, for ribbon bows.

Galloon A particularly supple, plain or patterned braided ribbon for piping or bindingin outerwear.

Fringes A narrow edging of projecting yarns which are not woven into the fabric,in viscose, wool, or silk.

Cords Circular braided materials of various thickness in viscose, cotton or syn-thetics. Used as decoration for clothing, in household textiles, and insporting goods.

Tassels Expensive, hand-made articles in silk or viscose. A combination of fringes,cords, and braids.

Rosettes Decorative items used either alone or in combination with ornamentaltextiles.

Soutache A mouldable flat braid with two ribs in silk or viscose used for formal clothes.

Pompons Bunches of wool, silk or synthetics used as trimmings, hanging alone or ingroups.


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7 Clothing Manufacture

7.2 Equipment and Methods for Sewing

7.2.2 Sewing Machines, Overview

Machine Types Applications

Straight seams, zigzag seams (see pages 170 to 173).

Blind stitch machines for invisible stitching and hemming

Linking machines for attaching collars, cuffs andwaistbands on knitted fabrics(see page 177).

Edge neatening, combinedneatening and seam closing,safety stitching (see pages174, 175).

Binding cut edges, flat seams on knitted fabrics (see page 176).

Specialised sewing operations (see page 185).

Automatic, complex sewingoperations (see page 186).

13: Profile sewer 14: Pocket sewer

1: Lockstitch machine

2: Chain stitch machine

3: Multi-thread chainstitch machine

4: Blind stitch machine 5: Linking machine

6: Overedge machine 7: Safety stitch machine

8: Flat seam machine 9: Flat seamer with cylinder bed

10: Buttonhole machine 11: Button sewing machine 12: Automatic looper


204

8 Organisation of

Clothing Manufacture 8.3 Industry Sectors and Product Groups

Comparison between Bespoke and Industrial Production

Product Groups with Examples of Product Types (Apparel Fabrics)

The clothing industry ranges from small, hand-made (bespoke) operations up to large industrial garment making enterprises.

Industrial production is divided according to

• Target groups (women's, men's, and children's wear),• Applications (underwear, shirtings, foundation garments, workwear, and sportswear),• Materials (wovens, flat knits, circular knits).

Bespoke operations are divided along technical lines into men's tailoring, women's tailoring, shirtings, and underwear.

Bespoke Clothing Production Industrial Clothing Manufacture

• The clothing is made for individual clients, according to in-dividual size and requirements. Particular characteristics ofthe client, in terms of the body shape, can be taken into account during cutting and sewing.

• The client selects the material and the design, from sampleswatches and fabric collections. The cut and the style isagreed by discussion with the tailor, before cutting begins.

• Bespoke tailoring involves a much higher investment of time for each garment, and is correspondingly more ex-pensive than industrial manufacture. However, the client isusually rewarded by a more individual design and a higherquality of material and workmanship

• Production is geared to an anonymous, statistically and/ordemographically and culturally defined target consumergroup.

• Cutting patterns and sizes are based on standard sizecharts, derived from large numbers of measurements.

• Garments are produced in a limited range of sizes. Stan-dardised cutting and making procedures mean that all gar-ments have the same shape; allowances for uncommonbody shapes can not be made.

• The consumer has the choice between a wide range of dif-ferent garment styles but has no direct influence over theirdesign and cut.

• Large-scale manufacturing techniques allow a wide rangeof garments to be produced in a fraction of the timerequired for bespoke tailoring of individual items.

Menswear, Boyswear Womenswear Children's wear Workwear, Sportswear

jacketstrouserssuitsformal wearuniformswaistcoatscoatstraditional costume

blousesdressesskirtsjacketscoatstrousers & trouser-suitsevening wearwedding dressestraditional costume

babywearjacketstrouserscoatsgirls dresses

workwearsportswearleisure wearski wearjeansprotective clothing

Knitted Outerwear Shirtings, Underwear Foundation wear, Swimwear Accessories

pulloverstwin-setsjackets & cardigansknitted dresses

dress shirtscasual shirtschildren’s shirts

nightwearunderwearlingerie

brassierescorsetrysupport stockingsswim suitsbikinisswimming trunks

socksstockingsleggingsscarvescapstieshandkerchiefs


205

8 Organisation of

Clothing Manufacture 8.4 Garment Production Systems

Sharing a job of work between several people is called division oflabour. Quantitative division is where the required number of wholeitems is shared (with each person doing the same work). Qualitative

division is where the work required for each item is divided intosmaller operations (each person performs a different operation).

Production Organisation Systems

The synchronised, or straight-line system is suitable for large volumeproduction (mass production or large batches). As the name suggests,the work flows in a straight line through a series of workstations, eachof which is synchronised to the next by ensuring that the time spentat each station is exactly the same. This represents an extreme formof the division of labour.The system requires that each individual step in the assembly of theproduct has to be analysed carefully and the steps distributed in abalanced way over the available work stations. Each operator then per-forms exactly the same operation(s) over and over again on the iden-tical parts of successive garments. Detailed work plans have to be drawn up to facilitate this balancing of the line. Advantages of the syn-chronised line system include short distances between stations, lowvolume of work in process, precise planning of production times, highly visible production progress and predictable production quan-tity. Disadvantages include the need for intensive detailed pre-planning, high cost of style changes, sensitivity to disruption byproduction difficulties or absenteeism, and the dependence ofproductivity on maintaining a strict rhythm of work.The progressive bundle system is a way of avoiding the rigidity andsome of the disadvantages of the synchronised line system. Machinesand operatives are organised into sections, each of which specialiseseither in the production of a major sub-component (collars, cuffs), orthe assembly of two or more sub-components.Within and between sections the work is balanced according to the time required for each sub-function. The combination of small bund-les and a line system provides the best solution to the problems of fre-quent style changes, small lot sizes, and short delivery deadlines.Materials transport systems (Figures 1 and 2) distribute the work inprogress among the different workstations.

Types of Production System

There are different ways to organise the production of garments, according to the type, the quantity and the diversity of pro-ducts to be made. The number of items to be made and the rate of delivery of these items distinguish individual production,batch production and mass production.

Individual Production Batch Production Mass Production

With individual production (makingthrough) each product is made onlyonce. The system requires highlyskilled, experienced operators andversatile machinery.

Example: made-to-measure costume

Batch production is used for larger,though fixed quantities of identicalarticles either for stock or to order.

Examples: blouses, skirts

Mass production means that largequantities of identical products aremade continuously. The high utilisationof machinery and labour allows a highlevel of automation and specialisation.

Examples: T-shirts, work trousers

2: Bundle assembly with wagons

1: Straight line system with hanger transport


212

8 Organisation of

Clothing Manufacture

Progress planTask Week 11

1 2 3 4 5H & OMaierKühnelGrotzM. SöhneEberleMenzerL & N

8.9 Production Management (1)

Production management provides all of the tools that are required for the smooth and economic operation of manufacturingprocesses. It regulates the interaction in space and time between people, equipment, information and resources to achieve theobjectives of the manufacturing system (page 209). A principle concern is the flow of work in progress and information.

The following tasks are of particular significance.

• Determining the time sequence of the required processes

• Timely provision of materials and equipment

• Timely provision of information

Every manufacturing company has a production program to follow. For a garment maker, the production program is embodiedin the collection plan. The collection is the range of products that will be manufactured for marketing in a particular season (page 224).

The Production department co-ordinates the development of new products, the procurement of materials and their processing,and the control of quality throughout manufacture

The Processing (Making-up) department is responsible for the processes that complete the work to be done. It is responsible forproduction planning and control.

Data Exchange and Data Formulation

Co-ordination between departments, sections and processes is mediated by the exchange of data (information). Data are suppliedin the form of detailed work instructions and process-dependent technical information. Data have to be documented. This can bedone via a company computer network and also by the use of standard company forms. The way that data are transmitted in a par-ticular company will depend on its structure, its level of technology, the type and range of its collections and other factors. A widevariation is possible.

Task Data SourcesProcessing Tools

Development of new

products

• Product concept• Design concept• Market orientation

(Target group)• Fabric concept• Style calculation

Production planning

• Product• Colours• Sizes• Quality targets

Production control

• Process schedule(sequence of sub-processes)

• Progress control(task-dependent)

• Quantities• Deadlines• Quality control

Sketches, Style concepts

Style patterns

Technical drawings

Parts lists

Forms description

Making instructions

Calculations

Style specification

Materials lists

Making plans

Balance plan

Production plan

(task-dependent)

Forms for process-,quantity-, progress

control

Making-up

Quality control plan

Cutting lists

Cutting instructions

Quality specifications

Style components

Block patterns

Material records

Equipment records

Schedulingrecords

Progress plan

Qualityhandbook


223

9 Product Design 9.1 Target Groups and Quality Levels

Attitude and Lifestyle Fashion Awareness and Expectations

Womenswear Menswear Womenswear Menswear

Anti-fashion, no demands Trendy fashion follower Avant-garde Avant-garde

Prestige oriented Untidy youthful Jeans type Jeans type

Careful, unsophisticated No particular orientation Modern woman Modern man

Smart, conservative Conventional, unsophisticated Youthful Youthful

Young, trendy Cultured Businessman

Smart Formal

Middle of road Middle of road

Bargain hunter Bargain hunter

Not to be tempted Older, demanding, fashion grouch Career woman Career man

Nonconformist Younger, confident, demanding Fashion conscious Young fashions

Target Groups

Quality Level

Quality level is the other factor that determines the market sector towards which a collection will be aimed. The quality level defines the rank of the product in the total range of offers in the market, so far as its design content and workmanship are con-cerned. The following factors, for example, have an influence.

• Fabric quality • Fashion content• Workmanship in the interior parts • Precision of assembly• Style and Fit • Range of sizes and number of pieces

The following quality levels can be distinguished

Designer quality characteristics include unique designerlabels, small numbers per style, the most exclusive fabrics – often with in-house designs – extreme fashionleaders, avant-garde designs.

High quality or Model fashions are characterised by veryhigh levels of workmanship, exclusive designs and detailing, small series production, limited size range, fashionable.

The Upper middle level uses good quality fabrics, pro-vides optimum fit, and follows the latest fashions in styleand colour.

The Middle level has strict price constraints, a com-prehensive size range, but a limited range of styles.

The Bottom or Discount level has large quantities of limited styles. Fabric quality and workmanship are geared to low price levels. The style and fit are of com-paratively lower importance.

A target group is an identifiable sector of consumers with broadly similar characteristics, such as fashion consciousness, buying habits, types of shops used, brand awareness, brand loyalty and quality requirements. A target group can be defined according to the following criteria.

Marketing is a collection of activities that include market research, consumer surveys, and customer service. The objective is toarrive at a collection of products for sale in the future and then to promote this collection in the market. The ultimate goal is acollection that can be produced for minimum risk and maximum return.

1: Clothing quality levels

Quantity

Designer

High quality

Upper middle

Middle

Bottom, discount store

high

low

Exclu

siv

ity


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