Clostridium botulinum• Bacteria: Anaerobic, spore-forming, motile GPR• Source: Soils, sediments, intestinal tracts of fish/mammals,

gills and viscera of crabs and other shellfish• Illness: Intoxication (heat-labile neurotoxin)• Symptoms: Weakness, vertigo, double vision, difficulty in

speaking, swallowing and breathing, respiratory paralysis • Foods: Semi-preserved seafood, improperly canned foods• Transmission: Spores present in raw foods

• Control: Proper canning, aw <0.93, pH <4.7

Clostridium perfringens• Bacteria: Anaerobic, spore-forming, nonmotile GPR• Source: Soil, dust, intestinal tract of animals and

humans• Illness: Infection (toxin released on sporulation)• Symptoms: Intense abdominal cramps and diarrhea• Foods: Temperature abuse of prepared foods such as

meats, meat products, and gravy• Transmission: Spores present in raw foods• Control: Proper time/temperature control; preventing

cross-contamination of cooked foods

Bacillus cereus• Bacteria: Facultatively aerobic, spore-forming, motile GPR• Source: Soil, dust, raw foods• Illness: 1) diarrheal type (infection, heat-labile toxin); 2)

emetic type (intoxication, heat-stable toxin)• Symptoms: 1) profuse watery diarrhea, abdominal pain; 2)

vomiting, nausea• Foods: 1) vegetables, salads, meats, casseroles; 2) rice

and pasta• Transmission: Spores present in raw foods• Control: time/temperature; reheat cooked foods to >165o F

Brucella abortis, B. suis• Bacteria: Aerobic, nonmotile, GNR• Source: Domestic and wild animals• Illness: Infection (undulant fever)• Symptoms: Sweats, chills, weakness, aches, joint

pains• Foods: Raw milk, infected meat• Transmission: Infected animals

• Control: Pasteurize milk, cook meats

Campylobacter jejuni• Bacteria: Microaerophilic, motile GNR • Source: Intestines of poultry, livestock, domestic animals;

streams and ponds• Illness: Infection (gastroenteritis)• Symptoms: Diarrhea, abdominal pain, headache, weakness,

fever• Foods: undercooked chicken & hamburger, raw milk & clams• Transmission: Contaminated foods & water; cross-

contamination; person to person

• Control: Proper cooking, proper hand and equipment washing,

sanitary food handling practices

Pathogenic Escherichia coli O157:H7

• Bacteria: Facultative anaerobic, motile or nonmotile GNR• Source: Intestines of animals and poultry• Illness: Hemorrhagic colitis (HC), hemolytic uremic syndrome

(HUS), thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura (TTP)• Symptoms: HC) diarrhea & vomiting, HUS) diarrhea & acute

renal failure, TTP) diarrhea, GI hemorrhage, blood clots in brain• Foods: Meat, poultry, potatoes, raw milk• Transmission: Cross-contamination, sewage pollution of

coastal waters • Control: Proper cooking, temperature control, preventing

cross-contamination, proper personal hygiene

Listeria monocytogenes• Bacteria: Microaerophilic, motile, GPR

• Source: Widespread in the environment

• Illness: Infection

• Symptoms: Mild flu-like symptoms to meningitis, abortions, septicemia, and death

• Foods: Coleslaw, raw milk, Mexican style soft cheese, smoked mussels

• Transmission: Cross-contamination from raw to cooked food, contaminated raw foods

• Control: Proper cooking, preventing cross-contamination, pasteurizing milk

Salmonella spp.• Bacteria: Facultative anaerobic, motile, GNR• Source: Intestine of mammals, birds, amphibians and reptiles• Illness: Infection (gastroenteritis)• Symptoms: Nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps, fever• Foods: Poultry, poultry salads, meats, dairy products, egg

products• Transmission: Cross-contamination, human contamination,

sewage pollution of coastal waters• Control: Proper cooking, temperature control, preventing

cross-contamination, personal hygiene

Shigella spp.• Bacteria: Facultative anaerobic, nonmotile, GNR• Source: Intestine of humans and primates• Illness: Infection (gastroenteritis)• Symptoms: Mild diarrhea, fever, abdominal cramps, severs

fluid loss• Foods: Water, milk, salads, lettuce, watermelon, beans,

spaghetti• Transmission: Contamination from workers, sewage pollution

of coastal waters, contamination of seafood after harvest• Control: Personal hygiene, preventing human waste

contamination of water supplies, preventing ill people or carriers from working with food

Pathogenic Staphylococcus aureus• Bacteria: Facultative aerobic, nonmotile, GPC• Source: Humans and animals, air, dust, sewage• Illness: Intoxication (gastroenteritis)• Symptoms: Nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps,

watery or bloody diarrhea, fever• Foods: Meats, poultry, eggs, dairy products, seafood• Transmission: Contamination of food by workers or

equipment• Control: Time/temperature control, personal hygiene,

sanitation

Vibrio cholerae• Bacteria: Facultative aerobic, motile, curved GNR

• Source: Naturally occurring in estuaries, bays and brackish water

• Illness: Infection (cholera or gastroenteritis)

• Symptoms: 01: watery diarrhea, vomiting, abdominal cramps; non-01: Diarrhea, abdominal cramps, fever

• Foods: Molluscan shellfish

• Transmission: Contaminated water, cross-contamination from raw to cooked seafood, consumption of contaminated raw seafood

• Control: Proper cooking, preventing cross-contamination, Harvesting from approved waters

Vibrio parahaemolyticus• Bacteria: Facultative aerobic, motile, curved GNR• Source: Naturally occurring in estuaries and other coastal areas

throughout the world• Illness: Infection (gastroenteritis)• Symptoms: Diarrhea, abdominal cramps, nausea, vomiting,

headache• Foods: Raw, improperly cooked, or cooked and contaminated fish

and shellfish• Transmission: Cross-contamination from raw to cooked seafood,

consumption of raw seafood• Control: Proper cooking, preventing cross-contamination of cooked

seafood

Vibrio vulnificus• Bacteria: Facultative aerobic, motile, curved GNR• Source: Naturally occurring marine bacterium• Illness: Infection (wounds, gastroenteritis, septicemia)• Symptoms: Skin lesions, septic shock, fever, chills,

nausea• Foods: Raw oysters, clams and crabs• Transmission: Cross-contamination from raw to cooked

seafood, consumption of raw seafood• Control: Proper cooking, preventing cross-contamination

of cooked seafood

Yersinia enterocolitica• Bacteria: Facultative aerobic, motile, GNR• Source: Soil, water, domesticated and wild animals• Illness: Infection (gastroenteritis)• Symptoms: Diarrhea, vomiting, abdominal pain, fever• Foods: Meats, oysters, fish, raw milk• Transmission: Cross-contamination from raw to cooked

food, poor sanitation, time/temperature abuse• Control: Preventing cross-contamination, proper

sanitation and food handling practices

Viruses

• Hepatitis A and E

• Norwalk virus group

Hepatitis A• Source: Human intestine• Illness: Infection • Symptoms: Fever, malaise, nausea, abdominal

discomfort, jaundice• Foods: Cold cuts, sandwiches, fruits, fruit juices, milk

and milk products, vegetables, salads, shellfish, iced drinks

• Transmission: Fecal contamination of food or water• Control: Proper cooking, preventing cross-

contamination, good sanitation, employee hygiene

Norwalk Virus Group• Source: Human intestines• Illness: Infection• Symptoms: Self-limiting and mild; nausea, vomiting,

diarrhea, abdominal cramps, fever• Foods: Salad ingredients, raw or insufficiently cooked

clams and oysters• Transmission: Fecal contamination of food or water• Control: Proper cooking, good sanitation, employee

hygiene, preventing cross-contamination

Anisakis simplex• Parasite: Nematode (herring worm)• Source: Raw or undercooked fish (salmon, tuna, herring,

mackerel, squid, anchovies)• Illness: Infection• Symptoms: Tickling sensation in throat to acute

abdominal pain and nausea• Transmission: Consumption of raw or undercooked fish• Control: Proper cooking of fish, commercial freezing of

fish to be consumed raw

Ascaris lumbricoides• Parasite: Nematode• Source: Human intestines, insufficiently treated sewage-

fertilizer• Illness: Infection• Symptoms: Vague digestive tract discomfort, migration

of nematode into throat/mouth/nose• Transmission: Infected food handlers, sewage fertilized

fruits and vegetables• Control: Good sanitation, employee hygiene, proper

treatment of sewage used for fertilizer

Pseudoterranova dicepiens• Parasite: Nematode (codworm)• Source: Raw or undercooked fish (cod, pollock,

haddock)• Illness: Infection• Symptoms: Tickling sensation in throat to acute

abdominal pain and nausea• Transmission: Consumption of raw or undercooked fish• Control: Proper cooking of fish, commercial freezing of

fish to be consumed raw

Trichinella spiralis• Parasite: Nematode• Source: Pork and bear meat• Illness: Infection (Trichinosis)• Symptoms: Fever, muscle soreness, pain and swelling around the

eyes. Chest pain may be experienced since the parasite may become imbedded in the diaphragm.

• Transmission: Raw or improperly cooked infected pork or bear meat

• Control: Thoroughly cook pork and other potentially infected meats, cook garbage fed to hogs, avoid cross-contamination of beef with pork

Diphyllobothrium latum• Parasite: Tapeworm• Source: Raw freshwater or anadromous fish• Illness: Infection• Symptoms: Abdominal distention, flatulence, intermittent

abdominal cramping and diarrhea.• Transmission: Consumption of raw or undercooked fish• Control: Proper cooking of fish

Taenia solium, T. saginata• Parasite: Tapeworm (T. solium, pork tapeworm; T. Saginata,

beef tapeworm)• Source: Swine or beef• Illness: Infection; worms attach to lining of small intestine and

can grow large enough to block the intestinal tract • Symptoms: Nausea, epigastric fullness, and vomiting.

Central nervous system disorders may arise in intermediate hosts of T. solium

• Transmission: Raw or improperly cooked infected pork or beef

• Control: Proper cooking of pork and beef

Cryptosporidium parvum• Parasite: Protozoa• Source: Cows, goats, sheep, deer, elk• Illness: Infection (intestinal, tracheal, or pulmonary

cryptosporidiosis)• Symptoms: Intestinal - severe watery diarrhea or

asymptomatic; pulmonary and tracheal - coughing and low-grade fever

• Transmission: Contaminated food handler, person-to-person, contaminated water supplies, salad vegetables fertilized with manure

• Control: Personal hygiene, prohibit fertilizing salad vegetables with manure, boil or filter contaminated water

Entamoeba histolytica• Parasite: Protozoa• Source: Intestinal tract of humans and primates• Illness: Infection• Symptoms: 1) none, 2) vague gastrointestinal distress,

or 3) dysentery• Transmission: Fecal contamination of drinking water

and foods, person-to-person, infected food handlers• Control: Good sanitation, employee hygiene

Giardia lamblia• Parasite: Protozoa• Source: Domestic and wild animals• Illness: Infection• Symptoms: Diarrhea (the most common cause of non-

bacterial diarrhea in North America)• Transmission: Contaminated water, infected food

handlers, contaminated vegetables eaten raw• Control: Water treatment, good sanitation, employee

hygiene, good food handling practices

Types of Naturally Occurring Chemical Hazards

• Mycotoxins (e.g., aflatoxin)• Scombrotoxin• Ciguatoxin• Shellfish toxins

– Paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP)– Diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP)– Neurotoxic shellfish poisoning (NSP)– Amnesic shellfish poisoning (ASP)/Domoic Acid

• Other marine toxins– Gempylotoxin– Tetrodotoxin

Scombrotoxin (Histamine)

• Toxin: Histamine• Source: Improperly handled (time/temperature abuse) mahi mahi,

tuna, bluefish, sardines, amberjack, mackerel• Range: Worldwide• Symptoms: Metallic or peppery taste, nausea, vomiting, abdominal

cramps, diarrhea, swelling and flushing of face, headache, dizziness, heart palpitations, hives, rapid and weak pulse, thirst, difficulty swallowing

• Control: Proper chilling and temperature control after capture• FDA Guideline: 50 ppm histamine in raw, frozen tuna and mahi

mahi; canned tuna; and related species

Ciguatera Fish Poisoning• Toxin: Ciguatoxins (4 toxins)• Source: Certain species of tropical and subtropical fish

feeding on algae (Gambierdiscus spp.)• Range: Tropical and subtropical waters worldwide• Symptoms: Diarrhea, abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting,

abnormal or impaired skin sensations, vertigo, lack of muscle coordination, cold/hot sensation reversal, muscular pain and itching

• Control: No tests available; obtain fish from safe harvest areas

• FDA Guideline: None established

Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning• Toxin: Saxitoxins (18 toxins)

• Source: Contaminated molluscan shellfish feeding on algae (Alexandrium, Pyrodinium, Gymnodinium spp.)

• Range: Tropical to temperate waters worldwide

• Symptoms: Numbness and burning or tingling sensation of lips and tongue spreading to face and fingertips, general lack of muscle coordination in arms, legs, neck

• Control: Obtain molluscan shellfish from waters that have been approved for harvest

• FDA Guideline: 0.8 ppm saxitoxin equivalent (80ug/100g) in all fish

Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning• Toxin: Okadaic acid and its derivatives

• Source: Molluscan shellfish feeding on algae (Dinophysis and Prorocentrum spp.)

• Range: Japan, southeast Asia, Scandinavia, western Europe, Chile, New Zealand, eastern Canada

• Symptoms: Diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, cramps

• Control: Obtain molluscan shellfish from waters that have been approved for harvest

• FDA Guideline: 0.2 ppm okadaic acid plus 35-methyl okadaic acid (DXT 1) in all fish

Neurotoxic Shellfish Poisoning• Toxin: Brevetoxins (3 toxins)• Source: Molluscan shellfish feeding on algae (Gymnodinium

breve)• Range: Gulf of Mexico and southern Atlantic coast in U.S. New

Zealand• Symptoms: Tingling of the face and spreading to other parts of

the body, cold/hot sensation reversal dilation of pupils, feeling of inebriation

• Control: Obtain molluscan shellfish from waters that have been approved for harvest

• FDA Guideline: 0.8 ppm brevetoxin-2 equivalent (20 mouse units/100g) in clams, mussels and oysters

Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning• Toxin: Domoic acid

• Source: Molluscan shellfish (mussels) feeding on algae (Pseudonitzschia spp.), viscera of Dungeness crab and anchovies

• Range: Northeast and northwest coasts of North America

• Symptoms: Intestinal distress, facial grimace or chewing motion, short-term memory loss, difficulty breathing

• Control: Obtain molluscan shellfish from waters that have been approved for harvest

• FDA Guideline: 20 ppm domoic acid in all fish; 30 ppm domoic acid in viscera of Dungeness crab

Gempylotoxin• Toxin: Oil contained in the flesh and bones of specific

species• Source: Gemplids, escolars or pelagic mackerels

(escolar; oilfish, castor oil fish or purgative fish; snek)• Range: Almost worldwide• Symptoms: Diarrhea, generally without pain or cramping• Control: Avoid specific fish species• FDA Guideline: Escolar should not be imported

Tetrodotoxin• Toxin: Tetrodotoxin

• Source: About 80 species of puffer fish, blowfish or fugu

• Range: Pacific, Atlantic and Indian Oceans

• Symptoms: Numbness and tingling of the mouth, weakness, paralysis, decreased blood pressure, quickened and weakened pulse. Death can occur within 30 minutes.

• Control: Do not eat puffer fish or avoid improperly prepared pufferfish

• FDA Guideline: Puffer fish may not be imported except under strict certification requirements and specific authorization from FDA

Tetramine• Toxin: Tetramine• Source: Salivary gland of whelk (Neptunia spp.)• Range: Primarily the Sea of Japan• Symptoms: Intense headache, dizziness, nausea and

vomiting• Control: Remove salivary glands before consumption• FDA Guideline: Remove the salivary glands of

Neptunia spp.