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CLINICAL PHARMACOLOGY OF NEUROMUSCULAR
BLOCKING AGENTS
Jerrold H. Levy, MDProfessor of Anesthesiology
Emory University School of Medicine Division of Cardiothoracic Anesthesiology
and Critical CareEmory HealthcareAtlanta, Georgia
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HISTORY OF NEUROMUSCULAR BLOCKING AGENTS AND CLINICAL
DEVELOPMENT
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HISTORY
1494 - Tales of travelers killed by poison darts
1551 - Ourari” or “cururu” meaning “bird killer”
1812 - Curarized cat kept alive by artificial respiration
1912 - Curare used to prevent fractures during ECT
1941 - Initial use by Griffith, Culler, and Rovenstine
1951 - Succinylcholine chloride first used in Stockholm
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INTRODUCTION OF NEW DRUGS1494 - 1942 Curare1947 - 1951 Succinylcholine chloride, Gallamine,
Metocurine, Decamethonium1960’s Alcuronium1970’s Pancuronium bromide, Fazadinium1980’s Vecuronium bromide, Atracurium besylate1990 Pipecuronium bromide1991 Doxacurium chloride1992 Mivacurium chloride1994 Rocuronium bromide1999 Rapacuronium bromide
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STRUCTURAL CLASSES OF NONDEPOL.ARIZING RELAXANTS
• Steroids: Rocuronium bromide, Vecuronium bromide, Pancuronium bromide, Pipecuronium bromide
• Naturally occurring benzylisoquinolines: curare, metocurine
• Benzylisoquinoliniums: Atracurium besylate, Mivacurium chloride, Doxacurium chloride
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THE IDEAL RELAXANT
• Nondepolarizing
• Rapid onset
• Dose-dependent duration
• No side-effects
• Elimination independent of organ function
• No active or toxic metabolites
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ONSET OF PARALYSIS IS AFFECTED BY:
• Dose (relative to ED95)
• Potency (number of molecules)
• Keo (chemistry/blood flow)
• Clearance
• Age
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Neuromuscular Blocking Agents Neuromuscular Blocking Agents and Patient Evaluationand Patient Evaluation
Assessing Postoperative Assessing Postoperative Neuromuscular FunctionNeuromuscular FunctionAssessing Postoperative Assessing Postoperative Neuromuscular FunctionNeuromuscular Function
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Sustained 5-second head lift Ability to appose incisors (clench teeth) Negative inspiratory force > – 40 cm H2O Ability to open eyes wide for 5 seconds Hand-grip strength Sustained arm/leg lift Quality of speaking voice Tongue protrusion
Assessing Postoperative Neuromuscular Function
CLINICAL ASSESSMENTCLINICAL ASSESSMENT
Kopman AF, et al. Anesthesiology, 1997:86;765Kopman AF, et al. Anesthesiology, 1997:86;765
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Ali HH, et al. Br J Anaesth. 1975;47:570Ali HH, et al. Br J Anaesth. 1975;47:570
Assessing Postoperative Neuromuscular Function
Train-of-Four (TOF) Fade RatioTrain-of-Four (TOF) Fade Ratio
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9999999997979797100100100100100%100%100%100%
959595959191919110010010010090%90%90%90%
949494948888888810010010010080%80%80%80%
92929292828282829797979770%*70%*70%*70%*
95959595707070709191919160%60%60%60%
100100100100100100100100100100100100Control Control =100=100
Control Control =100=100
Peak Exp. Flow Rate
Inspiratory ForceVital CapacityTOF Ratio
Assessing Postoperative Neuromuscular Function
Ali HH, et al. Ali HH, et al. Br J AnaesthBr J Anaesth. 1975;47:570. 1975;47:570Ali HH, et al. Ali HH, et al. Br J AnaesthBr J Anaesth. 1975;47:570. 1975;47:570
THE ORIGIN OF THE GOLD STANDARDTHE ORIGIN OF THE GOLD STANDARD
* Historically regarded as the Gold Standard * Historically regarded as the Gold Standard * Historically regarded as the Gold Standard * Historically regarded as the Gold Standard
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NEW DATA SUGGEST THAT A TOF OF 0.90 MAY BE NEEDED TO ENSURE NORMAL FUNCTIONNEW DATA SUGGEST THAT A TOF OF 0.90 MAY BE NEEDED TO ENSURE NORMAL FUNCTION
Assessing Postoperative Neuromuscular Function
Kopman: A TOF > 0.90 compatible with normal clinical tests (Anesthesiology. 1997;86:765)
Eriksson: Pharyngeal function normal at TOF 0.90 (Anesthesiology. 1997;87:1035)
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Assessing Postoperative Neuromuscular Function
Patients are often returned to the PACU with residual paralysis1
The TOF ratio of 0.70 may be inadequate for discharge of an ambulatory patient1
TOF ratios 0.40 are difficult to assess clinically2
ASSESSING TOF FADE RATIOASSESSING TOF FADE RATIOASSESSING TOF FADE RATIOASSESSING TOF FADE RATIO
1Viby-Mogensen J, et al. Anesthesiology. 1979;50:5392Kopman AF, et al. Anesthesiology. 1994;81:1394
1Viby-Mogensen J, et al. Anesthesiology. 1979;50:5392Kopman AF, et al. Anesthesiology. 1994;81:1394
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Assessing Postoperative Neuromuscular Function
Recovery is inadequate if fade is detected1,2
Clinical trials are needed to demonstrate measurement techniques for TOF ratios of 0.902
11Eriksson, LI, et al. Eriksson, LI, et al. Anesthesiology.Anesthesiology. 1997;87:1035 1997;87:103522Bevan, DR, et al. Bevan, DR, et al. AnesthesiologyAnesthesiology. 1988;69:272. 1988;69:272
11Eriksson, LI, et al. Eriksson, LI, et al. Anesthesiology.Anesthesiology. 1997;87:1035 1997;87:103522Bevan, DR, et al. Bevan, DR, et al. AnesthesiologyAnesthesiology. 1988;69:272. 1988;69:272
TOF FADE RATIO: CONCLUSIONTOF FADE RATIO: CONCLUSIONTOF FADE RATIO: CONCLUSIONTOF FADE RATIO: CONCLUSION
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Vagolytic Partially block cardiac muscarinic receptors involved in heart
rate slowing, resulting in increased heart rate: rapacuronium > pancuronium > rocuronium > vecuronium
Generally do not promote histamine release Exception: rapacuronium
Organ-dependent elimination Kidneys and liver
Neuromuscular Blockers:Chemical Structure & Key Characteristics
AminosteroidsAminosteroids
Savage DS, et al. Br J Anaesth. 1980;52 Suppl 1:3SDurant NN, et al. J Pharm Pharmacol. 1979:31(12):831Marshall IG, et al. Br J Anaesth. 1980;52 Suppl 1:11S
Savage DS, et al. Br J Anaesth. 1980;52 Suppl 1:3SDurant NN, et al. J Pharm Pharmacol. 1979:31(12):831Marshall IG, et al. Br J Anaesth. 1980;52 Suppl 1:11S
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Absence of vagolytic effect these drugs do not block cardiac-vagal (muscarinic)
receptors Histamine release
dTc > atracurium > mivacurium > cisatracurium can cause rare bronchospasm, decreased blood pressure,
increase of heart rate Generally organ-independent elimination1
esp: atracurium, cisatracurium, mivacurium Noncumulative2
Neuromuscular Blockers:Chemical Structure & Key Characteristics
BenzylisoquinolinesBenzylisoquinolines
1Stenlake JB, et al. Br J Anaesth. 1983;55;3S2Ali HH, et al. Br J Anaesth. 1983;55:107S
1Stenlake JB, et al. Br J Anaesth. 1983;55;3S2Ali HH, et al. Br J Anaesth. 1983;55:107S
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Ultra- Ultra- ShortShort ShortShort
Clinical durationClinical duration(injection to T(injection to T2525))Clinical durationClinical duration(injection to T(injection to T2525))
6 - 86 - 86 - 86 - 8 12 - 2012 - 2012 - 2012 - 20 30 - 4530 - 4530 - 4530 - 45 >60>60>60>60
<15<15<15<15 25 - 3025 - 3025 - 3025 - 30 50 - 7050 - 7050 - 7050 - 70 90 -18090 -18090 -18090 -180
Classification of Neuromuscular Classification of Neuromuscular Blockers by Duration of Action (Minutes)Blockers by Duration of Action (Minutes)
LongLongIntermediateIntermediate
Recovery time Recovery time (injection to T(injection to T9595))
Recovery time Recovery time (injection to T(injection to T9595))
Recovery index (TRecovery index (T25 25
to Tto T7575))Recovery index (TRecovery index (T25 25
to Tto T7575))
ExamplesExamplesExamplesExamples
2 - 32 - 32 - 32 - 3 6666 10 -1510 -1510 -1510 -15 >30>30>30>30
succinyl-succinyl-cholinecholine
succinyl-succinyl-cholinecholine mivacuriummivacuriummivacuriummivacurium cisatracuriumcisatracuriumcisatracuriumcisatracurium doxacuriumdoxacuriumdoxacuriumdoxacurium
Assumes bolus dose = 2x EDAssumes bolus dose = 2x ED9595Assumes bolus dose = 2x EDAssumes bolus dose = 2x ED959511AnectineAnectine®® (succinylcholine chloride) Package Insert (succinylcholine chloride) Package Insert22MivacronMivacron®® (mivacurium chloride) Package Insert (mivacurium chloride) Package Insert33NimbexNimbex®® (cisatracurium besylate) Package Insert (cisatracurium besylate) Package Insert44NuromaxNuromax®® (doxacurium chloride) Package Insert (doxacurium chloride) Package Insert
11AnectineAnectine®® (succinylcholine chloride) Package Insert (succinylcholine chloride) Package Insert22MivacronMivacron®® (mivacurium chloride) Package Insert (mivacurium chloride) Package Insert33NimbexNimbex®® (cisatracurium besylate) Package Insert (cisatracurium besylate) Package Insert44NuromaxNuromax®® (doxacurium chloride) Package Insert (doxacurium chloride) Package Insert
1122 33 44
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DURATION OF ACTION OF NEUROMUSCULAR BLOCKING AGENTS
• Ultra-Short: Succinylcholine chloride
• Short: Mivacurium chloride
• Intermediate: Rocuronium bromide, Vecuronium bromide, Atracurium besylate
• Long: Pancuronium bromide, curare, metocurine, Pipecuronium bromide, Doxacurium chloride
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CARDIOVASCULAR PROFILE OF NEUROMUSCULAR BLOCKING
AGENTSHemodynamics, histamine release, and
other aspects
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HISTAMINE RELEASING POTENTIAL
Significant Insignificant
Tubocurarine + + + Rocuronium bromide ±
Metocurine ++ Vecuronium bromide ±
Atracurium besylate + Pancuronium bromide ±
Mivacurium chloride + Pipecuronium bromide ±
Succinylcholine chloride + Doxacurium chloride ±
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Muscle Relaxants
Pancuronium• Vagolytic: increases heart rate,
may require beta blockade
• Easy to use
• Intermediate duration of action
• Slower onset
• Not reversed at end of case
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Muscle Relaxants
Vecuronium• No effects on HR, BP
• Requires reconstitution
• Reliable and controllable duration of action
• Slower onset
• Stable hemodynamics/no histamine release
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Muscle Relaxants
Rocuronium• No effects on HR, BP
• Easy to use, liquid, no refrigeration
• Reliable and controllable duration of action
• Fast onset
• Stable hemodynamics/no histamine release
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Effects of Rocuronium on Heart Rate
Time (minutes)Time (minutes)
100100
9090
8080
7070
6060
5050
40400.00.0 1.01.0 2.02.0 3.03.0 4.04.0 5.05.0 6.06.0
Heart
Rate
(b
eats
/min
)H
eart
Rate
(b
eats
/min
)
Levy et al. Levy et al. Anesth AnalgAnesth Analg 1994;78,318-321. 1994;78,318-321.
600 mcg/kg600 mcg/kg900 mcg/kg900 mcg/kg1200 mcg/kg1200 mcg/kg
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Effects of Rocuronium on Mean Arterial Pressure
Time (minutes)Time (minutes)
100100
9090
8080
7070
6060
50500.00.0 1.01.0 2.02.0 3.03.0 4.04.0 5.05.0 6.06.0M
ean
Art
eri
al Pre
ssu
re (
mm
Hg
)M
ean
Art
eri
al Pre
ssu
re (
mm
Hg
)
600 mcg/kg600 mcg/kg900 mcg/kg900 mcg/kg1200 mcg/kg1200 mcg/kg
Levy et al. Levy et al. Anesth AnalgAnesth Analg 1994;78,318-321. 1994;78,318-321.
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Effects of Rocuronium on Histamine Release
Time (minutes)Time (minutes)0.00.0 1.01.0 2.02.0 3.03.0 4.04.0 5.05.0
Pla
sma H
ista
min
e (
ng
/ml)
Pla
sma H
ista
min
e (
ng
/ml)
Levy et al. Levy et al. Anesth AnalgAnesth Analg 1994;78,318-321. 1994;78,318-321.
600 mcg/kg600 mcg/kg900 mcg/kg900 mcg/kg1200 mcg/kg1200 mcg/kg
3.03.0
2.52.5
2.02.0
1.51.5
1.01.0
0.50.5
0.00.0
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Muscle Relaxants
Rapacuronium• Minimal effects on HR, BP
• Controllable duration of action
• Fast onset
• Stable hemodynamics/minimal histamine release
• Potential for bronchospasm led to its removal in 2001
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COSTS OF NEUROMUSCULAR BLOCKING AGENTS AND
SELECTION CRITERIA
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Cost of care acquisition cost
The real, substantial savings accrue from use of intermediate- and short-acting drugs because: Inexpensive, long-acting drugs are associated with prolonged
postoperative recovery 1
Fast recovery means shorter risk periods of residual blockade. This translates into fewer postoperative complications, as shown in the Berg study2
Postoperative complications are very expensiveAvoiding these is where the real cost savings accrue
Cost of care acquisition cost
The real, substantial savings accrue from use of intermediate- and short-acting drugs because: Inexpensive, long-acting drugs are associated with prolonged
postoperative recovery 1
Fast recovery means shorter risk periods of residual blockade. This translates into fewer postoperative complications, as shown in the Berg study2
Postoperative complications are very expensiveAvoiding these is where the real cost savings accrue
Neuromuscular Agents:Costs of Care
Neuromuscular Agents:Costs of Care
1Ballantyne JC, et al. Anesth Analg. 1997; 85:4762Berg H, et al. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 1997;41:1095
1Ballantyne JC, et al. Anesth Analg. 1997; 85:4762Berg H, et al. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 1997;41:1095
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Cardiovascular stability Nondepolarizing vs depolarizing Organ-independent elimination Clinically significant active or toxic metabolites Predictability of duration Cumulative effects Reversibility Time to onset Stability of solution Cost
Rationale for Selection of NMBAs:Rationale for Selection of NMBAs: