Civil Fundamental- Lecture Note 1

8/12/2019 Civil Fundamental- Lecture Note 1

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ENG 002

INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL

ENGINEERING

Course Notes

by

Prof. Dr. Akın ÖNALP



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FOREWORD

Most of the students starting a civil engineering program usually have an incomplete idea

about their future vocation, or none at all. This course is intended to give you a brief but

thorough study of the history, development and the branches of this profession not only to

inform the students of its wide coverage, but also to enable them to make a sound

decision as they embark on a long process of training and study in this branch of

engineering.

Civil Engineering is one of the oldest, and certainly the most established, professions. Its

official history goes back to 25 B.C. when the first book on its practice was published

during the days of the Roman Empire. It has been taught in technical schools since the

eighteenth century.

This initial information shows that our profession has all the features that will make it an

attractive branch to study and it promises a wide field for finding jobs or create business

for the graduates worldwide.

The civil engineers in Turkey have always had a special place in the society since the

founding of the Republic. The civil engineer has been active in all walks of the society and

he/she has served in many offices up to the presidency. Several civil engineering

companies were placed in the top 50 for many years. Today, there are many Turkish civil

engineering companies doing brisk business in foreign countries.

I hope that the topics we are going to cover during this course will convince you that you

have made a good choice for a profession and that you will be an enthusiastic student of

civil engineering. You will notice that the text is almost devoid of illustrations. This is due

to the fact that there will be many slides shown during the lecture and you are urged to

take notes across the appropriate pages as the slides and transparencies are shown , to

make your text complete.

Several colleagues have contributed to the development of this course at Karadeniz

Technical University and Kültür University and I would like to thank all of them because

they are the actual authors. I have merely collected and edited their writings.

Welcome to the Department. Candan basar ı dilekleri ...



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CONTENTS

I. Introduction and Scope ...................................................................................................... 3

II. The Story of Civil Engineering in Historical Perspective .................................................... 7

III. The History of Civil Engineering Education and Training .................................................14

IV. Structural Engineering ...................................................................................................... 16

V. The Story of Bridges ........................................................................................................ 20

VI. Geotechnical Engineering ................................................................................................22

VII. Tunnelling ........................................................................................................................ 24

VIII. Hydraulic Engineering ...................................................................................................... 27

IX. Transportation Engineering ..............................................................................................30

X. Water Supply and Sewerage ...........................................................................................32

XI. Construction Management ...............................................................................................36

XII. Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 40



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CHAPTER I

I. INTRODUCTION AND SCOPE

This course has three aims:

1. To acquaint the student with the historical developments in the

construction industry ;

2. To provide information on the profession of civil enginering in

order that the student will be able to have an overview of his/her

future vocation before they embark on a four year journey towards

a degree in civil engineering;

3. To stimulate them towards choosing a "pet" subject among the five

branches of civil engineering in order that he/she will decide on a

field of specialisation and perhaps even look forward to a graduate

degree.

The name civil engineering originates from the purpose of distinguishing its civilian

activities from those of military engineering in the XVIInd century. Military engineering

developed long before civil engineering in ancient Rome and engineers subsequently, inthe eighteenth century, wanted to show that they were a different group doing different

jobs like building villas, sewer lines or roads rather than building military camps,

fortifications, assault bridges or tunnels (lağ mc ı ).

It will perhaps be appropriate to briefly discuss the "keywords" relating to the subject of

this work.

1.1 Fundamental Definitions

We all talk about science, engineering and similar terms in daily life without thinking of

details. Below are some of these definitions with introductory comments.

a) Art

All methods involved in the expression of a feeling, design or beauty directed towards

achievement of perfection.



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b) Science

Science is defined as any system of knowledge that is concerned with the physical world

and its phenomena that entails unbiased observations and systematic experimentation. In

general, a science involves a pursuit of knowledge covering truths or the operation of

fundamental laws.On the simplest level, science is knowledge of the world of nature. Thus

sciences range from theology to physics or psychology.

Science does not necessarily aim to obtain a certain result; it can observe and investigate

and may or may not eventually draw conclusions. Science is accepted to have started in

the ancient world with the development of philosophy in the Hellenic communities.

Although preceding civilisations like the Egyptian and the Mesopotamian civilisations

reached advanced levels of engineering, religion and law, it is accepted that these were

developed before science was "discovered”.

Thales in the fourth century B.C. stated philosophically that " ..all is water ..thus the world

is full of deities .." . This can be considered as some sort of scientific opinion. Although

incorrect, we may perhaps accept Thales as one of the earliest scientists because

philosophy turned to science in his time.

Pythagorean School through the use of mathematics and philosophy attempted to solve

the mystery of the universe. Geometry evolved within this period, with Plato in the IV.th

Century B.C. stating that studying geometry prepared one's mind for the solution of allproblems. Aristotle (400B.C.) is considered one of the first scientific researchers although

he was basically a philosopher. Archimedes and Euclid were among the first

mathematicians that emerged from the school of thought originating from Socrates. All

these historical events show that science is closely related to, and emanated from

philosophy.

The torch of learning passed from the Hellenic world to the Arabs by the emergence of the

Islamic Empire in the Vllth century. They studied theology through the Quran (fikih, hadis,

kelam, tefsir...) but also adopted the classical knowledge on mathematics, philosophy,

astronomy and astrology. The science of algebra (al-jabr) was initiated in the Arab world.

The science of optics developed by ibn-i Heysem is a gift from the Arabs to the modern

world (Kitab-ul Menazir). The Koran praises medicine as an art close to God. One of the

important Islamic philosophers is Ibn-i Rüşd, best known to the western world as Averroes

who claimed that science is essential for religion.



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Man has always tried to discover the secrets of the universe and the world in particular.

His conclusions have not been correct all the time, but he never stops investigating. What

is the role of the divine forces in science? Einstein has stated that the wonder is not that

mankind comprehends the world, but that the world is comprehensible. Science can

therefore be considered as the knowledge of natural regularities that is subjected to some

degree of skeptical rigour and explained by rational causes.

c) Technique

Another important word that is used liberally in daily life is technique. Perhaps another

simple term connected to it is "method". The word technique is closely related to science,

art and engineering and we can define it as the mode of execution in different activities

such as for example music, welding, painting, manufacturing of goods.

d) Engineering

The word engineer originates from the Latin term ingenerare, meaning to invent, to create

or to regulate. It is the professional art of applying scientific principles to the optimum

conversion of the resources of nature for the use of the humankind.

Unlike the scientist, the engineer is not free to select the problem that interests him. He

must solve the problems as they arise and his solution must satisfy conflicting

requirements. Usually efficiency costs money. Safety adds to complexity and improvedperformance increases weight. The engineering solution is the optimum solution and in

many engineering problems the social costs are significant.

Civilian engineering was separated from the military engineering in the XVIIIth century

especially with the onset of the industrial revolution. In addition to its functions like the

application of scientific principles to the manufacturing industry, design of machines and

structures and prediction of performance, economy and safety have eventually become its

integral parts.



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There are many branches of Engineering. The most important in order of the dates of

their establishment can be listed as

1. Architecture 8. Aeronautical&space engineering

2. Civil engineering 9. Chemical engineering

3. Mechanical engineering 10. Electronic engineering

4. Mining 11. Nuclear engineering

5. Metallurgical engineering 12. Biomedical engineering

6. Naval architecture 13. Industrial engineering

7. Electrical engineering 14. Genetic engineering

15. Environmental engineering

e) Technology

It is a term originating from industry where tools, equipment, methodology are considered.

“Techne” in Greek means art and craft, while “logos” is word and speech. More simply,

technology is defined as obtaining results of commercial value by solving the problems

through science and special techniques. Technology develops through research, and

financial resources alone do not result in creating new technology. The best example to

this are the oil-rich nations who are unable to develop technology, but simply have to

import it at great cost while selling their oil at petroleum products at low price. In a simpler

expression, countries sell technology to assert their superiority.

f) Civil Engineering

Civil engineering is a profession. It is the art of directing the great resources of power in

nature for the use and convenience of man.



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CHAPTER II

THE STORY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING IN HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

The latest determination of the age of the Earth has gone back to 4.86x10 9 years. The

most likely theory is that a cloud of gases consisting predominantly of iron and nickel,

condensed into what looks like a sphere. The atmosphere was formed much later,

enabling organisms to come into existence. The appearance of human beings is of course

only very recent in the geological timetable, approximately 3.8 xlO6 years ago.

The formation of the family structure necessitated taking refuge on tree tops, caves and

perhaps perching above water by some means to protect it from wild animals or

marauders. One can say that there was no engineering in all that, and we know that art

started much earlier. The caves of Altamira, Spain have pictures of animals, depicting a

bison drawn and coloured at least 15xlO3 years ago. Similar recent findings in France

carry that date further back.

Civil engineering activities can be assumed to have started as soon as the humans

changed from being fruit/meat gatherers/hunters to farmers, and communities began to

form. Protecting the settlement by building a wall around it, is engineering of the simplest

form. The concept of civil engineering therefore is as old as the first farming community .

Civil engineering developed along with the changes and the advances in the society andthe world to our day, and we can say that the profession has developed almost in parallel

with the society itself. So, one can claim that this branch of engineering has answered the

needs of the community, and really, it has not led it. Sciences like physics, chemistry and

those branches of engineering more closely related to it like electrical, or nuclear

engineering not to mention computer engineering on the other hand, have made

discoveries that have changed the lives of people and the society, thus can be considered

to be of different nature .

Table-I summarises the historical developments in relation to civil engineering. The authorhas no intention to give an account of history, but rather a wide perspective of civil

engineering. The dates and the events therefore are not in exact chronological order, but

have been 'distorted' to serve the purpose of forming a basis on which we shall try to build

our own course.



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TABLE 1 HlSTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS IN RELATION TO CIVIL ENGINEERING

PERIOD EVENTS - LANDMARKS ACTIVITY

-6000 Family-community-agriculture-society settlement-housing

Religion - multi deity temples

-4000 Egyptian and Mesopotamian civilisations massive structures-tombs

-500 Roman Empire planned construction of all kinds

0 Jesus Christ SCHOLASTICISM church architecture-Gothic

600 Hz.Muhammed Mustafa S.A.V : ArabianCivilisation, Amawid Kingdom of Andalusia

Mosque, arch

Byzantine Empire vault, mortar

1000 Feudal system : kingdoms, beylik castles

1450 Printing press : Reformation-Renaissance architecture

Discovery of new lands : COLONIALISM

1453 Ottoman Empire timber construction; public watersupply

1750 Advances in science : MATERIALISM

1789 French revolution : BOURGEOISIE metropolitan areas

1850 Industrial revolution : CAPITALISM mass housing, pollution

1910 National socialism monuments, motorways

1914 Great war COMMUNISM Monuments,rebuilding

1923 The Turkish Republic restructuring of society; intensiverebuilding of the country

1950 Superpowers pollution

1970 Space age new materials

1975 European Union EU Eurocodes

1980 International companies : GLOBALISM circulation of engineersoverseas contracts

1990 Fall of the Russian Empire Emergence of new markets forengineers

1995 Electronic revolution: the age of communication Computing civil engineer

2001 Emergence of terrorism ASYMMETRIC WAR Safe structures?

There is no doubt that religion is the most important part of people's lives. It therefore has

had a profound influence in the development of civil engineering. The earliest multi-deity

religions have appeared in Egypt and Mesopotamia as far back as 6000 B.C. the result

being the construction of religious structures such as temples and tombs, colossal even

by today's standards. The first recorded civil engineer, a priest-architect by the name of

Imhotep was instrumental in the planning and execution of the works to build the Djoser

high stepped pyramid in 2650 B.C. Similarly, many temples for each deity were built by

the Greeks in later years although not in such gigantic scale like the temples in Karnak,

Egypt and in Babel,Mesopotamia.



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The construction of religious buildings has been an important field of activity for the civil

engineer. The Selimiye Mosque in Edirne by Sinan (1489-1588) is an important example

of achievements in this field as it was the biggest dome ever built at his time with the

diameter of 31.28m exceeding that of Aghia Sophia of Istanbul at 30.88m. It is debatable

whether Mimar Sinan was an architect or a civil engineer. At any rate, he is alleged to

have built 84 mosques, 51 mescid, 57 medrese, 27 tombs, 17 food houses (imaret), 3

hospitals (daruşşifa), 5 arches, 8 bridges, 18 caravanserails, 35 palaces and 46 baths

(hamam) during his long lifetime. A record seldom exceeded even in modern times.

In Europe, stonemasons who dedicated themselves to building churches to the glory of

God by moving from one construction site to another around this time later formed the

movement of “freemasonry”.

Roman Empire is the first 'engineer nation' in history. Similar to many other empires it has

lasted about fifteen centuries, but it has an important difference from its predecessors

and successors. The legal system and the order established enabled the empire to

control lands on three continents. Its importance to us is the written laws and the

regulations passed pertaining to civil engineering. The first 'Ten books on Architecture'

written by Vitruvius in the first century B.C. can be considered as the official beginning of

the civil engineering profession. Here Vitruvius describes methods and information from

wind oriented design of city streets to the properties of soils. It is however worth noting at

this point that the Roman Empire has produced almost no scientists. This is attributed to

its authoritarianism and the absence of any kind of democratic institutions. The civil

engineer has been very active in the Roman Empire era as public works ranging from

temples to transit roads as well as palaces and villas have been constructed in Europe,

Asia, and Africa extending all the way to what is now known as England.

There are several official documents from the V th Century China which can also be

accepted as the first building codes of the emperor.

The birth of the Christian religion and the ensuing dark ages seems to have greatlyreduced the activities of the civil engineer apart from the construction of religious

buildings. The transportation and water supply systems in Europe mostly built by the

Romans went out of use during this era and public health deteriorated resulting in

frequent spread of diseases. The same cannot be said for the Islamic world which had its

brightest period from VII. to the XII th Century after which a significant decline in

construction work is observed. The palaces in Cordoba and Granada are but a few



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examples of superior Islamic culture and architecture. All this perhaps should not be

attributed to the extreme conservatism of the religion and its scholastic approach to life

but also to declining trade, not to mention the formation of the spirit of the crusades. One

fact remains however that the number of handwritten books in the libraries Cordoba and

Granada were more than the total in Europe at the time. Once the printing press came

into use in Europe and people were given the chance to read, the torch of science

changed hands.

The significant changes in the currents of thought during renaissance and reformation

brought immense changes to the society. Empires and kingdoms were under pressure to

make way to social changes like socialism, and communism. Construction of palaces

gave way to mass housing projects. The rise of nationalism caused the fall of empires.

National monuments abounded after the XVIIth century.

Science is naturally the origin of modern engineering. Science in modern times followed

the movements of renaissance and reformation and appears to have evolved by the

formation of scientific societies primarily in France, Germany and England. Many famous

names like Newton, Pascal, da Vinci are from this age. Governments supported the

development of science by opening technical schools (grandes ecoles) and providing

financial resources for scientific studies.

The major drive behind all this was again the requirements of the army, as well as the

urge and the need for discovery and colonialisation of new lands. Formation of scientificsocieties (e.g. The Royal Society) and development of technical school systems by the

state provided a big boost to the development of science in Europe.

The resulting industrial revolution at the end of the XVIII th Century changed the order of

the western world. A transformation occurred from handcrafts and manual power to mass

production and resulting exports through the use of steam power. Those societies which

had relied heavily on handcrafts and manpower, like India and China lost control of the

trade thus lost their income and became importers. This inevitably brought the collapse of

civil engineering industry in the East. Communities who built the Great Wall or the Taj

Mahal fell into poverty and anarchy.

Table II summarises the development of civil engineering activities throughout the world.

Seldjuks, the predecessors of the The Ottoman Empire have built wonderful structures

during their era including a chain of caravanserais which were placed strategically on the

silk route. The Ottoman Empire relied mainly on conquest during its development stage



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and was never really involved in trade and industry. This resulted in civil engineering

activities mainly funded by private and local resources. Probably as a result of this, the

majority of engineers and architects especially during the decline of the empire consisted

of members of the minority groups. The architectural style was accordingly influenced by

western concepts. The founding of the Turkish Republic brought important changes.

Several famous Turkish architects emerged in the thirties and the forties. Although heavily

influenced by their German teachers, it can be said that an architectural school had been

established in Turkey.

TABLE II EARLY DEVELOPMENTS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

TIME SOCIETY ACTIVITY

< -2500 Mesopotamian, Egyptian temples, tombs, pyramids,

public works

-500 Hellenic temple,bridge,watersupply, amphitheater

0 Roman coliseum, road, port

500 Byzantine vault, dome; mortar

650 Arab arch, decoration

1000 Seldjuk tombs, caravanserail

1500 Gothic church

1550 Ottoman Timber structures, çeşme

1750 Europe: Ecole Nationale schools

Turkish construction companies eventually ventured out of the country to achieve

important projects abroad. Today, the construction industry is a major contributor to the

national economy. Employment offered by this industry has been and will continue to

be a major source of income for the society.

II.l Functions of the Civil Engineer

The functions of the civil engineer can be divided into three categories: those performedbefore construction (feasibility study, site investigation, design); those performed during

construction (dealing with clients, consulting engineering, contracting) and those

performed after construction (maintenance and research).

Table III summarises those activities in a more detailed form. Today large projects are

usually tendered on turnkey basis (anahtar teslim) where it is easier for the client to



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achieve the desired purpose, be it the construction of an office block or a dam. In

turnkey systems there is a single deal whereby the contractor undertakes to implement

all stages described in Table-Ill.

Financial aspect of any project appears to be gaining importance in modern times

because profit is now the main purpose of enterprise. Construction management

therefore is gaining weight in civil engineering activities.

TABLE -III FUNCTIONS OF THE CIVIL ENGINEERING INDUSTRY

1. FEASIBILITY STUDY

2. SOIL INVESTIGATION

3. DESIGN

4. MATERIAL EVALUATION

5. CONSTRUCTION

6. CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT

7. SERVICING AND MAINTENANCE

8. CONTROL AND MEASUREMENT

9. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT : R&D

TURNKEY PROJECTS

II.2 Main Branches of the Civil Engineering Profession Today

Everyone knows to consult a different kind of specialist if he/she has a disease. The same

is true in civil engineering. The activities are so varied that there are specialist persons

and companies to deal with the specific level of activities in construction. It is usual to

classify these activities as they are organised in the universities.



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The main branches of civil engineering and subjects they deal with can thus be listed as:

A. THEORETICAL AND APPLIED MECHANICS (engineering mechanics)

Statics,dynamics,strength of materials;elasticity; plasticity; fluid mechanics, numerical

analysis

B. STRUCTURES

Materials; Theory of structures; reinforced concrete; timber structures; metal structures

(steel, aluminium), structural dynamics

C. HYDRAULICS

Hydraulic engineering; hydrology; water power; hydraulic structures (river-marine);

irrigation-drainage

D. TRANSPORTATION

Highways; railways; traffic engineering; airports; ports/harbours; pipeline transport

E. GEOTECHNICS

Soil mechanics; soil dynamics; rock mechanics; foundation engineering; underground

structures (tunnel, shaft, repository); waste management

F. CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT

Management, design, accounting, contracting, sale&lease, consulting

G. ENVIRONMENT**

Water supply; sewage works; pollution control

These branches will be dealt with in detail in the following chapters. But one can see that

it is possible to create or find jobs in contracting, consulting or design companies in each

of these sub-headings. Turkey is still a paradise for civil engineers, already branching outto other countries.



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CHAPTER III

THE HISTORY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND TRAINING

Like most professions, civil engineering started as a result of having to deal with the basic

requirements of communities. It gradually developed into a major industry which

participates at all levels of the society.

III.1 Training of Civil Engineers

It is natural that the early civil engineers and the architects were not formally trained,butdeveloped their skills and their 'art' by learning from their masters. One must however

remember that the Hammurabi laws of Babel written in the XVIIIth B.C. stipulated that if a

citizen dies because of faulty construction of his house the builder would pay it by his life.

This inevitably brought the necessity to train engineers just like the medical doctors as the

society developed.

The earliest attempt to train civilian engineers was made in France in 1747 by the

commissioning of J.R. Perronet to establish the Ecole Nationale de Ponts et Chaussees.

This was followed by Ecoles des Travaux Publics in 1794 which were later called Ecole

Polytechnique. The similar American institution to follow was the Rensealer Polytechnic

Institute in NewYork State (1849). Schools of engineering were also founded in Britain

(Polytechnics) and Germany (Technische Hochschule Karlsruhe) around the same years.

In Turkey, the training of engineers dates back to the establishment of Humbarahane and

Hendesehane in 1731. But these schools and Mühendishane-i Berri-i Hümayun and

Mühendishane-i Bahri-i Hümayun opened during the reign of Selim III were exclusively

military schools (1795). We can consider the first civilian schools in Turkey as the

Hendese-i Mülkiye Mektebi (1883) and the Mühendis Mektebi (1909).

The first engineering school of the Republic was called Mühendislik Mekteb-i Alisi (1926)

which transformed into Yüksek Mühendis Mektebi (1934). These schools are the

foundations of Istanbul Teknik Üniversitesi which officially gained its modern status by a

law passed in 1944.



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Robert College Engineering School had been established in 1912 to be followed by Yıldız

Teknik Okulu in 1944. This famous school was transferred to government control in 1971,

thus Boğazici University came into existence on its campus.

The Middle East Technical University started instruction in 1959 to be followed by

Karadeniz Teknik Üniversitesi in 1963. Today there are more than forty Departments of

civil engineering in the Universities in Turkey, in addition to perhaps an equal number of

vocational schools (MYO).

III.2 The Concept of University

University is defined as an institution of higher education, usually comprising a liberal arts

and sciences college (Fen-Edebiyat Fakültesi) and professional schools and having the

authority to confer degrees in various fields of study. The modern name originates from

universal (evrensel) because theoretically every scholar should be entitled to attend the

university of his choice and stay there as long as he continues his learning and search

(not training). The most important feature of a university is its autonomy. In its early days

the king promised not to interfere with what was discussed within its campus as long as it

did not infringe the authority of the ruler. Universities are supposed to be autonomous

today, meaning they are free to study any subject of their choice and decide on their own

affairs. The modern university evolved from the medieval schools of theology and

medicine (studium generate). The earliest known school which resembled a universitywas the famous medical school at Salerno Italy which drew students from all over Europe.

The second institution to be founded is the medrese of El-Ezher in Cairo in 988. However

authorities agree that the first "true" University is the one in Bologna, Italy founded in 1150

which was famous in canon and civil law. Universities of Paris and Oxford followed suit.

The first University in Turkey is Istanbul University and its formation is dated back to soon

after the conquest of Istanbul by Mehmed II.

Until the end of XVIIIth Century most universities offered core curricula on seven liberal

arts: grammar, logic, rhetoric, geometry, arithmetic, astronomy and music. Students then

proceeded to study in faculties of medicine, law or theology. Other subjects like physics,

chemistry, and veterinary medicine were added on later.

Through the time of their development, engineeering faculties were not a part of

Universities. Because the techniques involved had to be, and could be taught in clearly

defined courses in technical schools. University education for engineers was not seen to



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be essential. The first engineering department in a university was established as late as

1858 at Glasgow University. Others quickly followed. Today the majority of civil engineers

are trained in the universities. Thus a civil engineer is now able to receive a “doctor of

philosophy" degree from an academic institution.

Civil Fundamental- Lecture Note 1

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