Christianitya. 4-6 BCE: birth of Jesus Christ, land of Palestine (ruled by Rome)b. History: some Jews under Hellenism started believing in a messiah; growth of mystery religions (if believers followed practices then afterlife would be groovy); Jesus, as an adult, traveled around Judea, accompanied by 12 disciples, preaching forgiveness of sins; called the Christ = “anointed”; Jesus’ teachings

perceived as a threat to authority in the region; trial & execution of Jesus; belief in resurrection of Jesus; followers traveled the Roman Empire spreading Jesus’ message; spearheaded by Paul in Med. Sea (4 journeys b/t 45-58 CE); reached out to the lower classes & women; Christians persecuted under

Domitian (81 – 96 CE); Septimius Severus (193 – 211 CE)--Edict in 202 forbade Christian or Jewish conversion; Decius – ordered the renewed practice of sacrifices, giving certificates to those who did so, & punishment for those who did not; and Diocletian; Chr. would flourish in the 3rd Century Crisis

--313 Edict of Toleration issued by Constantine (288-337 CE) – 25% of the empire was Christian at the time--ending the period of “Great Persecution”; Theodosius in 380 CE official religion

--rise of the Catholic Church (pope, cardinal, priests, nuns) formed geog. units or dioceses; Christian bishops made these their HQ or sees within the urban centers; the center of the bishops authority was his cathedral or “chair”; when Const. moved the Roman capitol to Constantinople, the Roman bishop filled the authoritarian void; tradition had Peter being killed in Rome; pope= Latin papa (Father); missionary activity targeted kings; first to assume title of “pope” were the Patriarchs of Alexandria starting in 232 CE, while

in Rome in wasn’t for at least another 100 years; Catholic tradition has Peter as the first and Linus as the second Pope Victor was the first to conduct mass in Latin and not Greek (189 CE) Church takes on an Empire structure w/ dioceses, bishops in major urban areas  140s Marcion puts together one of the first lists of possible New Testament books; gradual rejection

of the Gnostic writings/gospels (discovered in 1945 in upper Egypt; contains 52 texts; written by the Gnostics, those who claimed secret divine knowledge; were an early challenge to the established church claiming a good god & an evil god)189 Pope Victor was the first to conduct mass in Latin & not Greek288-337 Constantine reunited Empire; Edict of Milan in 313 CE proclaimed toleration of Christianity

(25% of the empire Christian at the time); moved capitol to Byzantium (Constantinople) 318 first monastery was established 321 Sunday established as official state day of rest 335 Council of Jerusalem rejects the mandate to be circumcised 330-397 St. Ambrose—Church auth over pol authority; males should run Church; priests celibate347-420 St. Jerome—translated the Greek Bible into Latin; (called Vulgate meaning “popular version”);

controversy which books totaling 39 or 46??? Set of books called Apocrypha 354–430 St. Augustine The Confessions wrote about good vs. evil; City of God—said that the Church

could not sin & the Church was the City of God; a Christian view of history431 Council of Ephesus condemned Nestorianism & affirmed Mary to be the Mother of God451 Council of Chalcedon affirmed Jesus had two natures (aka Hypostatic Union)

461-468 Pope Hilarius 496 Clovis I, King of the Franks converts to Chr; wanted to gain power over other possible leaders; started

Merovingian Dynasty (aka “long-haired kings”) came to fill the power vacuum left by the fall of Rome; defeated the Visigoth Kingdom 525 Dionysius creates the Christian calendar530 Benedict founds the Benedictine monasteries; promoted literacy/education; preserved manuscripts; hubs

for travelers, models of agri growth, & symbols of the Church for peasants Conflicts incl.—Apollinarius—4th century bishop who declared Jesus’ divinity supreme & denied the humanity; condemned at the 1 st

Council of Constantinople (381 CE)Monophysites—believe that Jesus had one natureMithraism grew as a mystery religion w/ 7 initiationsManichaeanism combined many beliefs seeing the world as a struggle b/t the forces of good and evil; came out of

Sassanid Persia (influenced by Zor.); very widespread; original 6 holy books have been lost; persecuted & burned alive by Diocletian; denied an omnipotent being Orphism the idea that the soul is a prisoner of the bodyArianism denied that Christ was divine; Constantine issued the Nicene Creed of 325 CE banishing Arius Growing split in Christianity: Eastern Orthodox Church vs the Roman Catholic Church—both considered to be the true

church; first area to legalize Christianity was Armenia in 301 CE; --5 ”sees”:Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem; --eastern churches saw the church at Antioch as the original

 Beliefs: mono—Trinity ; belief in eternal judgment, Messiah, original sin

Diffusion: --contagious: spread along existing trade/synagogue network in Med as missionaries used Roman roads; --318 first monastery established & 321 Sunday established as official state day of rest --432 St. Patrick to Ireland--496 Clovis I, King of the Franks converts to Christianity--hierarchical: once it became official people were forced Syncretinization: Valentine’s Day built around 2 Christian martyrs of the 3rd c. named Valentine--Roman

Lupercalia fertility festival in Feb; later in the Middle Ages it became a lover’s holidayImpact: Christianity continues to have an enormous influence on Western Culture; Christianity had wide appeal among the poor & among women because its stress on the concept of equality in faith; served as a glue among Europeans after the fall of the Roman Empire; earliest organized Christianity in the form of Catholicism, which had a significant influence on Medieval & Early Modern European rulers Status of women in Christianity:--early: more equal status; both men/women can reach heaven; women into convents; still held down

Zoroastrianisma. Persia (modern day Iran) ca 600 BCE, possibly earlier; Zarathrustra (Zoroaster—a vegetarian btw) who received a vision at age 30; believe that a man from the line of Zoroaster will be born of a virgin who will raise the dead & complete a final judgment b. Beliefs: Dualistic Monotheism – Ahura Mazda (good) Angra Mainyu (evil); Basic principle: "good thoughts, good words, good deeds" (Humata, Hukhta, Hvarshta); Strong belief in free will; At death the soul contemplates its life for three days, then the deeds are weighed & is given a one way ticket to heaven or hell; Belief in the end of the universe when all souls reunited w/ Ahura Mazda; Sacred book: Avesta ; rejects monasticism; fire important in rituals c. History/diffusion: once dominant religion in Persia (Iran), then pushed out; fewer than 200,000 in the world today—most in NW India; generally do not seek converts; Favored by the Persia Empire & later the Sassanid starting in 228CEd. Diffusion: primarily along Silk Road into Chinae. Impact: traditional only men were priests; beliefs influenced Judaism &

Christianity

Judaisma. Abt. 2000 BCE: migration of Abraham from Meso to Canaan; followers called Hebrewsb. Monotheistic: first to have a monotheistic religion; have a covenant relationship in which Yahweh (El) is their god & Jews are his followers; emphasized the

abstractness & power of God; history recorded in Torah ( first 5 books of the Hebrew scriptures, & the Tanakh—remaining books Christians call the Old Test)c. History: migration out of Canaan to Egypt (famine?); enslaved by Egyptians; exodus & freedom from slavery led by Moses (Moshe); Ten Commandments as law along w/ Torah; organized into 12 tribes; return to Canaan (Palestine) & establishment of theocracy; est Kingdom of Israel under Saul; Jerusalem becomes capital of Israel under David; kingdom weakens under Solomon (taxes); Rehaboam divides Israel into two kingdoms, Israel (North) & Judah (South); N kingdom fell to Assyrians, 722 BCE, leading to first Jewish diaspora; S kingdom fell to Babylonians in 586 BCE (Babylonian captivity); Persians (Cyrus 539 BCE) – allowed Jews to return & rebuild;

Greeks defeat Persia (Hellenization of Jews); Romans in 63 BCE took over; Diaspora – Rome destroys 2nd temple in 70 CE & then in 140 CE forces Jews out following Bar Kokba Revolt in 132 CE; forced/push relocation was the vehicle for diffusion form the synagogue; led to second Diasporad. Beliefs: Messiah not yet here; after-life ???; reward/punishment for deeds; importance of action over belief;e. Diffusion: not a universalizing religion; spread both contagiously/hierarchically through Med trade routesf. Impact: foundation for future mono religions of Christianity & Islam; pattern of anti- Semitism; at first more equalitarian then patr—both men & women have roles

Hinduism सना�तना धर्म� (“the eternal dharma”)--a. no single founder; developed from the literature/oral traditions of the Aryans in

present-day Indiab. Beliefs: no dominant belief; many sects; Pantheon (mono or polytheistic?) many gods, principle gods Brahma (creator) Vishnu (provider) & Shiva (destroyer);Brahman = divine essence/supreme being; reincarnation (samsara) needed to eliminate bad karma which leads to moksha (soul residing w/ Brahma; dharma = moral code to guide life & actions; most are vegetarians; temples/ mandirs—usually dedicated to a certain deity & are sites of pilgrimage; worship involves an icon or murtic. Impact: religious beliefs reinforced caste system, strengthened patriarchy by stressing obligations to community & family; Role of women: dominated by men;

contractual marriages w/ economic goals; family an important part of society— isolated, purdah, sati (primarily after 400 CE); strong heirarchyd. Writings: Vedas वे�द—meaning “divine knowledge”; consists of writings compiled by the Aryans (Rig Veda the oldest); Mahabharta महा�भा�रत (contains the Bhavagad-Gita ( भगवद्� ग त� )) emphasizes the need to do one duties; The Upanishads (उपनि�षद�) (750 – 500 BCE)– part of the Vedas that deals w/ meditation; the name; holds information on the basic beliefs of Hinduism & on the doctrine of Brahmane. Diffusion: pilgrimages (aka tirtha) often involve acts of purification; pilgrim sites are often directed toward one of the pantheon members; diff both hierarchical & contagious; into SE Asia (Cambodia, Angkor Wat temple complex) via Indian Ocean trade; today 1.1 billion mainly in India (US = 770,000)

Buddhisma. developed by Siddartha Gautama & his followers in NE India in the mid

500’s BCEb. Beliefs: “Buddha” = the enlightened one, but NOT a deity; sim to Hinduism:

relief from worldly suffering through the union of soul w/ divine spirit (nirvana); belief in reincarnation; Departure from Hindu beliefs: stressed equal treatment of all people (therefore opposed to caste system); 4 Noble Truths: life is suffering (dukha दुक्ख ); cause of suffering is desire (tanha); suffering or desire can be ended(nirvana); way to end suffering is through the 8 Fold Path (right viewpoint, intention, speech, action, livelihood,

effort, mindfulness, & concentration); Middle Way was path to nirvana; no original sin or messiah; sal. based on reincarnation; original Buddhism does not focus on deities;

c. Books: Dhammpada—written in Pali; contains proper conduct for monks/nuns; discourses from the Buddha; Tipitaka (major collection of writings for Theravada); Sutras (for Mahayana)

d. Diffusion: equality appealed especially to those of the lower classes; out of India by Ashoka 200s BCE & accepted by King Kanishka of the Kushans;

Ashoka’s son made a mission trip to Ceylon (Sri Lanka) to covert the people; Buddhist monasteries via contagious diffusion established along SR trade routes; monks & nuns hosted travelers & spread beliefs; 2 well- known monks (Faxian, Xuanzang); will evolve into Mahayana (many buddhas/bodavissita) & Theravada (monastic) & various forms in Japan (ie. Zen); in Tibet the Tibetan form; 8 pilgrimage sites: northern India, S Nepal--4 are places of important events in his life (most important is Lumbini, birthplace of Buddha, followed by Bodh Gaya where he gained enlightenment) & 4 others are places where he performed miracles

e. Significance: Buddhism achieved widespread popularity, especially in East & SE Asia, although it lost popularity in India itself; offered an

alternative to Hinduism for those in the lower castes, providing these people w/ hope for a better life in the future 

Confucianisma. Emerged during the Era of Warring States (b/t Zhou & Qin dynasties); Kung Fu-tse

(Confucius): Chinese scholar & philosopher who studied the literature of the Zhou period & developed a theory of how to establish stability in China

b. Beliefs: ethical system; Confucius taught that good, stable govt depended on educated civil servants & adherence to virtue; specifically stressed a series of patriarchal

relationships such as obedience & loyalty to the emperor, filial piety (xiao)& veneration of ancestors; Jen (kindness), Ren (right feelings); Li (correct action); centered on Five Relationships (ruler/ruled; father/son; husband/wife; older/younger brother; older/younger friend)=innate hierarchy in the order of the universe w/ each person having a role; importance of right action by rulers; stressed benevolence, non- violence

c. Followers recorded Confucius’ teachings in the Analects, which became the basis of the program of study for those wishing to enter China’s bureaucracy (after the Han est civil service exams);

d. Significance: Confucius’ teachings became the cornerstone of Chinese tradition & culture; foundation of meritocracy or civil service exams provided a greater level of

competency among government employees; Confucianism supported autocratic government in China & preserved patriarchal social structures/gender roles; furthered by Mencius (372 – 289 BCE) (common people foundation for pol. power) who taught human nature is good that needs to be cultivated; gov’t. should exist for the people; people have the right to rebel against the gov’t. ; strong priesthood— overtime, Conf deified

e. Spread: although Confucianism remains primarily a Chinese belief system, elements of Confucianism have been adopted in areas that fell under Chinese control (such

as Korea & Vietnam) or in areas that imported heavily from Chinese culture (such as Japan) 

Daoisma. Emerged during Warring States (b/t Zhou & Qin dynasties) founded by Lao Tze b. Beliefs: The Way of Life (Tao Te Ching)—wanted to stop warfare; balance in nature (yin & yang) is preferable; human understanding of nature & harmonious balance achieved by following “the Way” (the life force found in nature); unlike Conf. Daoism teaches that political activism & education are not necessary to harmony in nature because the natural flow of events would resolve problems; believed nature contained divine impulse directing all life; true understand came from contemplating the life source; feng shui: receive the positive qi (life-force) by the proper orientation; 3 Jewels of the Dao: compassion, moderation, & humility; Wu wei: means “without action”; moving w/ the universe; strong priesthoodc. Impact: Chinese adapted some Daoist principles to fit w/ Confucianism to reinforce ideas about responsibility for the community & the importance of meditation; ideas have influence on modern pop-culture (the Force, in Star Wars); even w/ emphasizes on no politics Daoism helped bring down the Han Dynasty w/ the Yellow Turban revoltd. Diffusion: limited & contagious; Daoism, like Conf, remains primarily a Chinese belief system, however, elements of Daoism have been adopted in areas that fell under Chinese control (such as Korea & Vietnam) or in areas that imported heavily from Chinese culture (such as Japan)

Jainisma. No single founder but Mahavira (the 24th & last teacher of Jainism) introduces

Jainism in 520 BCE in Indiab. Beliefs-- every human is responsible for their own actions & all have a soul or jiva; compassion for all life is one of the central tenets of Jainism; all monks & nuns vegetarian; many do not eat root veggies; Follow non-violence (ahimsa); every action brings karma but only through withdrawal can moksha be attained; 9 reincarnations then release; all things have a soul; levels of life; 9 Tattvas show how to attain salvation (moksha) monks & nuns practice strict asceticism & take an oath of five vows--non-violence, truth (satya), non-stealing (asteya),chastity (brahmacharya) & non-possession (aparigrah); Some monks will not wear clothes because they are seen as possessions which leads to sorrow; 18 activities that should be avoided (violence, greed, hate, gossip, etc); places of worship are temples; main book is the Book of Reality or Tattvartha Sutra, written by Umasvati; no one god but spirits; festivalsc. Diffusion: divided into four groups: monks, nuns, lay men, & lay women; primarily only in India; 2 main sects: the Digambara (meaning "sky clad") sect and the Svetambara (meaning "white clad") sect (one sect is Patriarchical, the other equalitarian)d. Impact—teaching influence the development of Hinduism; no priests—only monks/nuns