Chris Smart Creighton BradleyLeandra Londo

csmart@mtu.educfbradle@mtu.edulllondo@mtu.edu

Chapters 9 and 10

9.1 Using Reasons to Plan Your Argument 9.2 The Slippery Distinction between Reasons

and Evidence 9.3 Evidence vs. Reports of Evidence 9.4 Selecting the Right Form for Reporting

Evidence 9.5 Reliable Evidence 10.1 Questioning Your Argument 10.2 Finding Alternatives to Your Argument 10.3 Deciding What to Acknowledge 10.4 Responses as Subordinate Arguments

Introduction

Readers use reasons to believe and understand

Collect evidence and use reasons to organizeUse a storyboard

Try different arrangementsChange as you information changes

Using Reason to Plan Your Argument

Reasons are whyEvidence is accepted as factStart with reasons but base them on facts

Readers decide whether it is fact or a reasonImagine “how” and “why”

Distinction Between Reasons and Evidence

Evidence is usually reported.Evidence is rounded or shaped.

Unlikely for a researcher to rely on only 1 source

Most evidence we get is 3rd handReaders want proof

Methodssources

Evidence vs. Reports of Evidence

Numerous ways to report evidence Direct QuotesPhotographs, video, other mediaCharts or tablesParaphrasing

Different researchers require different techniques

Improper use of reporting leads to suspicion and loss of credibility

Selecting the Right Form for Reporting Evidence

Criteria for reliable evidencePrecision

Avoid vague words like “great deal” or small amount.Use discretion in differing fields

RepresentativeMore than one bit of infoFind best evidence

AccuracySmall mistakes kill credibilityAcknowledge if evidence is of unknown accuracy

From an authoritative sourceMake the evidence easy to interpret

Reliable evidence

Question the problem as your reader wouldWhy have you defined it that way?Is there even a problem?What kind of problem is it?

Question the solution as wellWhat kind of solution is it?Is the claim too strong?Why is your solution the best?

The best time to fix a problem is when you find it

Chapter 10: Questioning your argument

Different type of evidence wantedNot accurateNot preciseOutdatedNot representativeNot authoritativeNot enough evidence

Common objections to evidence

Alternatives in your sourcesNote where source takes a different approach

Especially outright disagreementsAcknowledge alternative positions of the

sourceDon’t ignore evidence because you deem it

irrelevant – explain why.If you pay attention to problems noted in

sources, you will understand the problem better.

Finding Alternatives to your argument

“But there are causes in addition to the one you claim.”If using cause-effect to explain your problem,

remember no cause has a single effect and vice-versa

“But what about these counter examples?”Think of them firstAcknowledge the more plausible onesExplain why they aren’t valid for your

argument

Three Predictable Answers

“I don’t define X as you do. To me, X means…Define it in a way that supports your solutionArgue your definition to support itIf using a technical definition over a common

one, explain why. Also do this if using a common definition over a technical one.

Three Predictable Answers, cont’d

Selecting Alternatives to respond to:Consider these priorities

Plausible charges of apparent weakness you can rebut

Alternative lines of argument that have been important in your field

Alternative conclusions readers want to be trueAlternative evidence that readers knowImportant counterexamples you have to explain

away

Deciding What to Acknowledge

Selecting alternatives to respond to:Look for alternatives that allow you to repeat

part of your argumentAcknowledge alternatives that may particularly

appeal to readers, but only if you can do so without sounding too dismissive.

Deciding What to Acknowledge, cont’d

If finding questions you cannot answer, try redefining your problem, or rebuilding your argument to avoid it.

Openly acknowledge the problem and respond that:The rest of your argument more than balances the

flawWhile the flaw is serious, further research would

show a way around itWhile the flaw makes it impossible to accept your

claim fully, your argument offers important insight into the question and suggests what a better answer would be.

Acknowledging Questions you can’t Answer

You have to respond to your imagined readers most thoughtful alternatives and objectives with an argumentEven most minimal responses give reason for

accepting, limiting or rejecting what you’ve acknowledged

More substantial responses require a full argument

Acknowledging the readers alternatives and objections brings you and your argument more credibility.

Responses as Subordinate Arguments

9.1 Using Reasons to Plan Your Argument 9.2 The Slippery Distinction between Reasons

and Evidence 9.3 Evidence vs. Reports of Evidence 9.4 Selecting the Right Form for Reporting

Evidence 9.5 Reliable Evidence 10.1 Questioning Your Argument 10.2 Finding Alternatives to Your Argument 10.3 Deciding What to Acknowledge 10.4 Responses as Subordinate Arguments

Summary

Booth, Wayne C., Gregory G. Colomb, and Joseph M. Williams. The Craft of Research.

2nd ed. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2003. 138-60. Print.

Bibliography

Questions?