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Transcript of China's International Relations Essay
Ewen Dymott – University of Bristol
1
Discuss the claim that as China moves to join the war on ISIS, there is growing evidence that
its military and security interests have moved beyond its domestic borders
Following the death of Mao Zedong on the 9th September 1976, China began to shift its focus
away from Marxist/Maoist ideology and towards economic pragmatism. Mao’s era was
characterised by a heavy emphasis on China’s domestic situation in an attempt to consolidate
support for the fledgling communist state, and this domestic focus was also evident in the
Chinese Communist Party’s (C.C.P) foreign policy. The end of the Second World War and the
early stages of the Cold War were periods of the 20th Century that were arguably the most
volatile due to the ensuing struggle between Western capitalism, and the communist ideologies
of the Soviet Union and China. Right from the start of Mao’s time as the leader of the C.C.P in
1949, he was faced with a direct challenge to the security of his regime which came in the form
of the Korean War (1950-1953). China’s involvement in the Korean War was largely motivated
by a desire to protect her domestic borders from the ‘imperialist’ United Nations forces led by
the United States. However, under Deng Xiaoping (1977-1992), China adopted a more
pragmatic approach focused on economic development and traditional Chinese culture, rather
than the revolutionary ideology promoted by Mao. It is important to note that during this period,
and subsequent periods, China retained its communist characteristics, but chose to focus on
economic growth and development over politics and ideology (Robinson, 1995). Chinese
foreign policy became centred on the national interest, which manifested itself in the form of a
more open approach to foreign investment, technology transfer and trade (Robinson, 1995). In
order to achieve Deng’s economic goals, China believed that peace was the key to prosperity
and actively sought closer relationships with Washington and Moscow in order to try and
nullify any perceived threats to Chinese territory (Robinson, 1995). Crucially, China also began
to turn to the ‘Third World’, and began a programme of military assistance that included the
sale and transfer of nuclear weapons technology to Algeria, Iran, Iraq, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia,
and Syria (Robinson, 1995). When coupled with the increased establishment of global
diplomatic relations, this period represents a turning point in Chinese history – one in which
China became motivated by economic development. This trend continued under subsequent
leaders, with increasingly active participation in international institutions and regional politics
with the belief that, as part of the international system, China would be better able to influence
global policy and effect economic growth. Since 1978, China has experienced a real annual
GDP growth rate of over 9% (Cable & Ferdinand, 1994).
China’s pragmatic desire for increased economic growth has gone hand in hand with
globalisation. As China seeks to trade with more markets across the globe, states have become
more economically dependent on one another. As a result, each country has gained strategic
interests in its international partners, and China is no exception. As China has grown
economically, the C.C.P has invested heavily in its military capabilities, which now allow the
People’s Liberation Army (PLA) to project military power beyond its borders (Roy, 1996).
However, China’s definition of what constitutes its borders is not necessarily universal - the
ongoing issue over the South China Sea exemplifies this. As a result of China’s economic
progress, and an increasingly globalised and interconnected world, China now has strategic
interests beyond its borders. However, there is a difference between strategic interests and
security interests, the latter of which are the topic of discussion. Security interests can be
considered strategic, but so can economic interests.
Ewen Dymott – University of Bristol
2
This essay will present the argument that China’s rumoured involvement in the war against the
Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (I.S.I.S) is motivated more by economic interest and therefore
it cannot be used as evidence to suggest that China’s military and security interests have moved
beyond its domestic borders. Indeed, if we look at the areas of globe in which China is most
militarily engaged, and the areas in which China has publically stated security interests, we can
see that they are heavily focused around China’s borders. Furthermore, even though China now
has the necessary military capabilities to pursue its foreign security interests, it is limited in
terms of how it can do so by the ‘Five Principles of Peaceful Co-Existence’. In order to make
this argument, this essay is divided into three sections. The first shall focus on the ‘Five
Principles’ and explain how they limit China’s ability to pursue security interests abroad but
legitimise military action within China’s domestic sphere, as well as how the very continuation
of this policy into the present day is evidence that China is still domestic focused with regards
to its military and security interests. The second part of this essay will explain the extent to
which China is involved in the war against I.S.I.S, and how any proposed action is motivated
more by China’s economic interests than security interests – thereby nullifying the claim that
China’s military and security interests have moved beyond its domestic borders. The third
section of this essay will look at two of China’s most pressing security issues, the South China
Sea and North Korea, and explain how these are considered security issues in close proximity
to China’s domestic borders. For the purposes of this essay, security issues will be classified
along more traditional theoretical lines in terms of threat to the Chinese state and the communist
regime, rather than notions of economic or human security.
The Limits of the Five Principles of Peaceful Co-Existence
The ‘Five Principles of Peaceful Co-Existence’ first appeared in the text of a treaty between
India and the People’s Republic of China (P.R.C) (Fifield, 1958). On the 29th April 1954, the
treaty to clarify India’s role in Tibet was signed in Peking, containing the ‘Five Principles’
(Fifield, 1958). The principles were worked out between three prime ministers, and so no single
individual can claim patronage over them (Kao, 1957; Nehru, 1957). Even though the ‘Five
Principles’ first appeared in the early 1950s, they remain the framework around which
contemporary Chinese foreign policy is orchestrated, as demonstrated by the Chinese Premier’s
remarks in 2004: “as a large developing country with 1.3 billion people, China will, as always,
steadfastly commit itself to the Five Principles of Peaceful Co-Existence” (Jiabao, 2004: 367).
They remain such a fundamental part of Chinese foreign policy that they have been written into
the constitution of the P.R.C (Zhenmin, 2014).
The Five Principles are as follows: mutual respect for sovereignty and territorial integrity,
mutual non-interference in domestic affairs, mutual non-aggression, equality and mutual
benefit, and peaceful co-existence (Chung, 2009). Mutual respect for sovereignty and territorial
integrity implies that each state has a right to freely choose its own economic, legal, political,
social, and cultural systems combined with the responsibility to respect the diversity of
civilizations across the globe, and that they enjoy these rights on the basis of independence and
equality (Hong, 2014). According to the Director-General of the Department of Treaty and
Law within the Chinese Foreign Ministry, this also includes the right for states to take “lawful
measures within its own territory to defend its territorial integrity” (Hong, 2014: 503). This is
significant because whilst this principle outlines that the independence and sovereignty of
Ewen Dymott – University of Bristol
3
nations are guaranteed (therefore implying that intervention within another state would be
against this principle), it allows for a scenario in which aggression and force could be used to
defend China’s territory – a provision particularly relevant to its border disputes and
aspirations. Mutual non-interference in domestic affairs safeguards the independence of states,
and acts to combat hegemonism (Hong, 2014). This principle essentially states that no nation
has the right to intervene in the affairs of another and shall not “organise, foment, finance,
incite or tolerate subversive, terrorist, or armed activities directed towards the violent
overthrow of the regime of another state” (Hong, 2014: 503). Mutual non-aggression dictates
that, unless authorized by the United Nations Security Council or in exercise of self-defence,
all states must refrain from the threat or use of force against another state (Hong, 2014).
Equality and mutual benefit outlines the Chinese position that all states are to be considered as
equals in the international system, regardless of their political, economic, or social systems
(Hong, 2014). Mutual benefit is most often applied to economics, and ensures that there can be
no ‘one-sided’ trade deals and that all participants stand to gain from them. Finally, the
principle of peaceful co-existence suggests that international disputes between nation states
should be resolved through peaceful means in accordance with international law (Hong, 2014).
These foreign policy principles are important for a number of reasons. Firstly, they heavily
limit the extent to which China can act to support its military and security interests beyond its
domestic borders, and in fact they “set particular and predictable limits on the choices available
to Chinese foreign policy makers” (Richardson, 2009: 5). Most notably, in relation to the war
against I.S.I.S, the principle of mutual non-interference in domestic affairs prohibits China
from intervening in the domestic affairs of both Syria and Iraq. Because of this principle in
particular, even though China may have strategic interests abroad which can include both
economic and security dimensions, Beijing cannot interfere in what is seen as a domestic
problem. Therefore, if Beijing’s proposed involvement in the war against I.S.I.S is considered
as evidence for expanding military and security interests, and this essay will argue that it is not,
China would be unable to act in favour of these interests anyway because of the limitations of
the ‘Five Principles’. Andrew Mertha (2011: 213) supports this view by arguing that China has
“voluntarily constrained itself in its international interactions from the 1950s to the present
(day)”. The second reason why these principles are important is because, whilst they do not
allow for military intervention abroad, they quite clearly allow for China to pursue her domestic
military and security interests. The use of the word ‘mutual’ is very important in this case,
because China could argue (with reference to its domestic border confrontations) that another
state, by laying claim to ‘Chinese territory’, is directly breaking the principle of mutual non-
interference in domestic affairs. This then allows China to use its military capabilities to defend
its territory without contravening her own principles, because another party would have already
broken the ‘mutual’ element of the ‘Five Principles’. This is arguably the most significant
determinant as to why China’s military and security interests are concentrated around its
domestic borders, and not beyond. In short, the current Chinese foreign policy framework, the
‘Five Principles of Peaceful Co-Existence’, limit China’s ability to act upon its interests abroad,
but promote the ability to act along her domestic borders. This is evidence that China has not
expanded her military and security interests abroad because if Beijing had begun to look further
afield, it would have to abandon, or at least redesign its policy principles.
Ewen Dymott – University of Bristol
4
China and the ‘Islamic State’
Ever since the C.C.P passed a counter-terrorism law in December 2015 that allowed the P.L.A
to be deployed overseas on counter-terrorist operations, there have been rumours circulating
amongst the media that China will move to join the war against I.S.I.S (Irish, 2016). However,
any proposed involvement in the multinational US-led coalition in Iraq and Syria was quashed
by the Chinese Foreign Minister, Wang Yi. On the 12th February 2016 he stated that “There is
a tradition in China’s foreign policy. We do not join in state groups that have a military nature
and this also applies to international terrorism co-operation” (Irish, 2016). Despite this
assertion that China will not be taking part in any military activity in the Middle East, Wang
Yi did emphasise that China had been fighting terrorism “in its own ways” (Irish, 2016).
According to the Business Insider, Beijing has been getting involved diplomatically in Syria
by recently hosting the Syrian Foreign Minister and opposition officials (Irish, 2016). In a
recent interview, Wang Yi himself outlined the levels of Chinese involvement in Iraq saying
“we have been helping Iraq with counter-terrorism capacity building, and conducting
intelligence sharing with certain countries”, he went on to add “we are (also) working with
countries to cut the channels of financial resources and movement of terrorists” (Irish, 2016).
Nevertheless, the C.C.P is not offering diplomatic and intelligence assistance to the
governments of Iraq and Syria altruistically. As mentioned earlier, through globalisation, China
has developed strategic interests in the Middle East. Some analysts and journalists argue that
China’s assistance in the region is motivated by security interests that specifically relate to a
growing number of Chinese-origin terrorists that have joined ISIS (Gertz, 2016). Indeed, I.S.I.S
have reportedly shown aspirations to expand its territory towards Xinjiang province – home to
a large Chinese-Muslim population (Chaziza, 2016). According to media reports, between 100
and 300 Uighur militants from Xinjiang have been training with I.S.I.S in order to carry out
terrorist attacks on Chinese soil. (Patranobis, 2014; Ng, 2014; Martina, 2014). Yet, in the face
of what Chaziza (2016: 26) describes as “a real danger to Beijing’s national security”, the most
decisive action taken by the Chinese government so far has been the evacuation of most of the
10,000 Chinese citizens living in Iraq (Hunwick, 2014). With respect to the borderline non-
existent involvement of the Chinese government in the war against I.S.I.S so far, it is
impossible to conclude that there is evidence for China’s military and security interests having
moved beyond its domestic borders, mostly because China has not involved and indeed cannot
involve its military in Middle Eastern affairs, in line with their ‘Five Principles of Peaceful Co-
Existence’ foreign policy framework.
Instead, the Chinese position towards Iraq and Syria should be viewed in terms of Beijing’s
economic plans, and there are two factors that have influenced the C.C.P’s policy. The first
factor relates to energy supplies. As a ‘developing’ and economically growing country, China
is heavily dependent on its manufacturing sector, which in turn relies upon the importation of
raw materials and energy, mostly in the form of non-renewable fossil fuels. The Middle East
is China’s largest source of crude oil, and in 2014 it supplied China with 3.2 million barrels per
day (Energy Information Administration, 2015). Since 2003, China has invested around $10
billion in the Iraqi oil industry, and approximately 50% of Iraq’s oil exports go to China which,
as of 2014, made Iraq the fifth largest foreign source of crude oil in China (Zambelis, 2013;
Energy Information Administration, 2015). By 2035, 80% of Iraq’s oil production is estimated
to be destined for China (Roberts, 2014). With the instability in Iraq and Syria caused partly
by the ‘Islamic State’, a significant proportion of China’s vital oil supplies are under threat and
Ewen Dymott – University of Bristol
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may lead to an increase in oil prices and jeopardise the already hefty investment made into
Iraq’s oil industry (Juan, 2014). Following the slowdown of the Chinese economy in January
2016, disruption to a vital oil supply would certainly hinder any recovery, and this is a far more
compelling explanation for the Chinese policy choices in Iraq and Syria than security interests
given the economic focus of recent Chinese leaders including Xi Jinping.
The second, and most significant economic factor driving China’s limited involvement in the
war against I.S.I.S, is the ‘One Belt One Road’ initiative. In September 2013, Chinese President
Xi Jinping first eluded to a proposal to create a ‘Silk Road Economic Belt’ at a speech in
Kazakhstan (Xinhua, 2013). Later that year in October, Xi, and his Premier Li Keqiang,
attended the Asia Pacific Economic Co-operation (A.P.E.C) summit, in Indonesia, and the East
Asia Summit, in which they outlined proposals for a 21st Century ‘Maritime Silk Road’ (Ruan,
2014). By early 2015, the ‘Silk Road Economic Belt’ and the ‘Maritime Silk Road’ were
amalgamated into the ‘One Belt One Road’ (O.B.O.R) concept, with the ‘belt’ referring to a
land route, and the ‘road’ referring to a maritime route to connect Asia, Europe, and Africa
(Summers, 2016). The O.B.O.R vision seeks mutual benefit to all participants, and so is
compatible with the ‘Five Principles’ framework (State Council, 2015). Section IV of the
‘vision document’ contains five co-operation priorities: policy co-ordination, facilities
connectivity (which involves the building of infrastructure, logistics, and communications and
energy infrastructure), unimpeded trade (free trade areas, customs co-operation, balancing
trade flows, and protecting the rights of investors), financial integration, and ‘people-to-people
bonding’ (student exchanges and tourism) (State Council, 2015). The O.B.O.R proposal has a
huge geographic scope, and under Section III of the ‘vision document’, it states that the belt
focuses on linking China, Central Asia, Russia, Europe, the Persian Gulf, the Mediterranean
Sea, Southeast Asia, South Asia, and the Indian Ocean (State Council, 2015). The South China
Sea is also to play an important part in bringing together trade between China and Europe, and
China and the South Pacific (State Council, 2015). According to a proposed map of the trade
routes published by the Xinhua news agency, the ‘Silk Road Economic Belt’ will pass through
both Iraq and Syria and seeks to include the Middle East by routing part of the ‘Maritime Silk
Road’ through the Suez Canal and the Persian Gulf (Xinhua, 2015; Strategic Comments, 2015;
Minnick, 2015). According to Nataraj & Sekhani (2015), the O.B.O.R initiative is the
centrepiece of China’s foreign policy and domestic economic strategy, and Beijing has already
allocated $40 billion to a ‘Silk Road’ fund. This initiative represents a defining moment in
China’s foreign policy and Xi Jinping’s presidency, designed to enhance trade and financial
links between China and a large portion of the world, with some 3 billion people estimated to
live within the economic belt alone (Summers, 2016). Long-term instability within Iraq, Syria,
and the Middle East as a whole, caused by I.S.I.S, is bound to affect the success of this proposal,
and given the economic focus of the current Chinese leadership, it is logical to argue that the
O.B.O.R route is the determinant motive for Chinese policy against I.S.I.S – especially given
the already substantial investment into the scheme. Given the two economic factors outlined,
it is clear that Beijing’s involvement in the war against I.S.I.S is not evidence for the pursuit of
military and security interests beyond its borders, but a continuation of China’s economic
globalisation and development plans.
Ewen Dymott – University of Bristol
6
China’s Security Interests
After concluding that China’s involvement against I.S.I.S is not motivated by security interests
and cannot be used as evidence to support the claim these interests have moved beyond China’s
domestic borders, it seems reasonable to examine where China’s security interests lie. This
section shall briefly identify two of Beijing’s top security interests; the South China Sea, and
North Korea – both of which are unfolding in close proximity to China’s domestic borders.
The South China Sea has been a long running problem for China, and for Southeast Asia as a
whole for a number of decades, because of overlapping territorial claims to many of the islands
within the sea by China, Vietnam, the Philippines, Malaysia, Taiwan and Japan (Lowy
Institute, 2016). The South China Sea is a significant maritime trading route that contains rich
fishing grounds, and reportedly large reserves of oil and natural gas (Lowy Institute, 2016).
However, for China, this issue is about something far more fundamental that economics alone;
in essence this dispute is about Chinese territory (Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s
Republic of China, 2015). It is an extremely important Chinese national interest because some
countries have occupied reefs and islands in the South China Sea which, in the eyes of the
C.C.P, violates Chinese territorial sovereignty (Hao, 2011). Furthermore, the South China Sea
is the ‘southern gate’ of China’s national defence and security, and any actions taken that will
destroy the peace and stability of the region (provoked by the border disputes) are a major
threat to Chinese national security (Hao, 2011). In recent years, there has been an increasingly
noticeable P.L.A presence on some of the Chinese claimed islands that threatens to escalate
this dispute further. Territorial integrity is a vital pillar of the C.C.P’s national identity – as
displayed by its prevalence in the ‘Five Principles’, and in the wake of the economic slowdown,
nationalism has taken on increasingly greater importance for the legitimacy of the C.C.P, and
consequently the party’s survival. (Turner, 2016). Therefore, because the survival of the
communist regime is at stake, this is clearly a security issue for the Chinese. This problem is
centred on Chinese borders and supports the argument that China’s military and security
interests have not moved further afield.
A second major Chinese military and security interest lies in North Korea. Since Kim Jong-Il
began North Korea’s pursuit of nuclear weapons technology in the 1990s, China’s territorial
security has been put under strain by the increasing likelihood of war breaking out on the
Korean peninsula (Shambaugh, 2003). On the last occasion of war between the two Koreas,
between 1950 and 1953, China became involved out of fear that the U.S led United Nations
forces would push beyond the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (D.P.R.K) into Chinese
territory, thus threatening Mao’s fledgling communist state (Hao & Zhai, 1990). Since then,
the D.P.R.K has conducted four nuclear weapons tests which is challenging the international
community as well as Chinese and regional security. The worry for China is that in the event
of war, history may very well repeat itself and the P.L.A could be drawn into another conflict
to protect its borders and to prevent the collapse of yet another communist state (Shambaugh,
2003). China is actively engaged in preventing the emergence of a nuclear North Korea, but
frequently finds itself caught between criticism from Kim Jong-Un, for aiding ‘imperialists’ in
imposing the U.N-backed sanctions against the regime, and from the U.S for not taking a
sufficiently hard-line approach against its communist neighbour. North Korea is a clear security
interest for China, and like the South China Sea issue, is occurring along its borders. In
examining two of China’s most prevalent security issues, it can be seen that they fall
comfortably within the realm of its domestic sphere, and whilst some could make the argument
Ewen Dymott – University of Bristol
7
that China is acting on behalf of the security of the entire Southeast Asian region, a more
convincing argument is that China is motivated by a desire to protect her own national security.
Conclusion
The claim that China’s proposed involvement in the war against I.S.I.S is evidence for the
pursuit of security interests beyond its domestic borders does not stand up to scrutiny. Indeed,
the so far limited actions of Beijing are motivated by economic concerns rather than security.
The importance of Iraq and the Middle East as a whole to China’s energy supplies, that are
vital to continued economic growth, combined with the desire for stability within Iraq and Syria
for Xi Jinping’s flagship ‘One Belt One Road’ policy, far outweigh any security interests that
may face China. If it were the case that China had security interests in the region, it is highly
likely that they would be unable to pursue them anyway because of the limitations of their
foreign policy framework – the ‘Five Principles’. The very fact that this framework does not
allow for foreign military involvement, despite the passing of a new counter-terrorism law, is
further evidence that China’s military and security interests remain centred around its domestic
borders. The location of two of China’s most pressing security interests, the South China Sea
and North Korea, further supports this argument. However, it is not inconceivable that China
will develop a serious security issue in the Middle East if more of its Muslim population from
the Xinjiang province train with I.S.I.S, and with the expanded strategic interests that arise
from the ‘Belt and Road’ initiative. In the future, this may lead to greater Chinese involvement
in the region, as long as it remains within the ‘Five Principles’ framework.
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