Chemical Foundations
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Transcript of Chemical Foundations
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Chemical Chemical FoundationsFoundations
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Steps in the Scientific MethodSteps in the Scientific Method
1.1. ObservationsObservations-- quantitativequantitative- - qualitativequalitative
2.2. Formulating hypothesesFormulating hypotheses- - possible explanation for the possible explanation for the
observationobservation3.3. Performing experimentsPerforming experiments
- - gathering new information to gathering new information to decidedecide
whether the hypothesis is validwhether the hypothesis is valid
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Outcomes Over the Long-Outcomes Over the Long-TermTerm
Theory (Model)Theory (Model)
- - A set of tested hypotheses that give A set of tested hypotheses that give anan overall explanation of some natural overall explanation of some natural
phenomenon.phenomenon.
Natural LawNatural Law
-- The same observation applies to The same observation applies to manymany different systemsdifferent systems
-- Example - Law of Conservation of Example - Law of Conservation of MassMass
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Law vs. TheoryLaw vs. Theory
A A lawlaw summarizes what happens summarizes what happens
A A theorytheory (model) is an attempt to explain (model) is an attempt to explain whywhy it happens.it happens.
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Nature of MeasurementNature of Measurement
Part 1 - Part 1 - numbernumberPart 2 - Part 2 - scale (unit)scale (unit)
Examples:Examples:2020 gramsgrams
6.63 x 106.63 x 10-34-34 Joule secondsJoule seconds
Measurement - quantitative Measurement - quantitative observation observation consisting of 2 partsconsisting of 2 parts
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The Fundamental SI UnitsThe Fundamental SI Units (le Système International, SI)(le Système International, SI)
Physical Quantity Name Abbreviation
Mass kilogram kg
Length meter m
Time second s
Temperature Kelvin K
Electric Current Ampere A
Amount of Substance mole mol
Luminous Intensity candela cd
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SI UnitsSI Units
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SI Prefixes Common to ChemistrySI Prefixes Common to Chemistry
Prefix Unit Abbr. Exponent
Mega M 106
Kilo k 103
Deci d 10-1
Centi c 10-2
Milli m 10-3
Micro 10-6
Nano n 10-9
Pico p 10-12
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Uncertainty in MeasurementUncertainty in Measurement
A digit that must be A digit that must be estimatedestimated is called is called uncertainuncertain. A . A measurementmeasurement always has always has some degree of uncertainty.some degree of uncertainty.
Measurements are performed with instruments No instrument can read to an infinite number of decimal places
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Precision and AccuracyPrecision and AccuracyAccuracyAccuracy refers to the agreement of a refers to the agreement of a particular value with the particular value with the truetrue value.value.
PrecisionPrecision refers to the degree of agreement refers to the degree of agreement among several measurements made in the among several measurements made in the same manner.same manner.
Neither accurate nor
precise
Precise but not accurate
Precise AND accurate
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Types of ErrorTypes of Error
Random ErrorRandom Error (Indeterminate Error) - (Indeterminate Error) - measurement has an equal probability of measurement has an equal probability of being high or low.being high or low.
Systematic ErrorSystematic Error (Determinate Error) - (Determinate Error) - Occurs in the Occurs in the same directionsame direction each time each time (high or low), often resulting from poor (high or low), often resulting from poor technique or incorrect calibration. technique or incorrect calibration. This can This can result in measurements that are precise, result in measurements that are precise, but not accurate.but not accurate.
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Rules for Counting Rules for Counting Significant Figures - DetailsSignificant Figures - DetailsNonzero integersNonzero integers always count as always count as significant figures.significant figures.
34563456 hashas
44 sig figs.sig figs.
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Rules for Counting Rules for Counting Significant Figures - DetailsSignificant Figures - Details
ZerosZeros-- Leading zerosLeading zeros do not count as do not count as
significant figures.significant figures.
0.04860.0486 has has
33 sig figs. sig figs.
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Rules for Counting Rules for Counting Significant Figures - DetailsSignificant Figures - Details
ZerosZeros-- Captive zeros Captive zeros always count always count
asassignificant figures.significant figures.
16.07 16.07 hashas
44 sig figs. sig figs.
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Rules for Counting Rules for Counting Significant Figures - DetailsSignificant Figures - Details
ZerosZerosTrailing zerosTrailing zeros are significant only if are significant only if the number contains a decimal the number contains a decimal point.point.
9.3009.300 has has
44 sig figs. sig figs.
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Rules for Counting Rules for Counting Significant Figures - DetailsSignificant Figures - Details
Exact numbersExact numbers have an infinite have an infinite number of significant figures.number of significant figures.
11 inch = inch = 2.542.54 cm, exactlycm, exactly
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Sig Fig Practice #1Sig Fig Practice #1How many significant figures in each of the following?
1.0070 m
5 sig figs
17.10 kg 4 sig figs
100,890 L 5 sig figs
3.29 x 103 s 3 sig figs
0.0054 cm 2 sig figs
3,200,000 2 sig figs
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Rules for Significant Figures in Rules for Significant Figures in Mathematical OperationsMathematical Operations
Multiplication and DivisionMultiplication and Division:: # sig # sig figs in the result equals the number figs in the result equals the number in the least precise measurement in the least precise measurement used in the calculation.used in the calculation.
6.38 x 2.0 =6.38 x 2.0 =
12.76 12.76 13 (2 sig figs)13 (2 sig figs)
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Sig Fig Practice #2Sig Fig Practice #2
3.24 m x 7.0 m
Calculation Calculator says: Answer
22.68 m2 23 m2
100.0 g ÷ 23.7 cm3 4.219409283 g/cm3 4.22 g/cm3
0.02 cm x 2.371 cm 0.04742 cm2 0.05 cm2
710 m ÷ 3.0 s 236.6666667 m/s 240 m/s
1818.2 lb x 3.23 ft 5872.786 lb·ft 5870 lb·ft
1.030 g ÷ 2.87 mL 2.9561 g/mL 2.96 g/mL
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Rules for Significant Figures Rules for Significant Figures in Mathematical Operationsin Mathematical Operations
Addition and SubtractionAddition and Subtraction: The : The number of decimal places in the number of decimal places in the result equals the number of decimal result equals the number of decimal places in the least precise places in the least precise measurement.measurement.
6.8 + 11.934 =6.8 + 11.934 =
18.734 18.734 18.7 ( 18.7 (3 sig figs3 sig figs))
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Sig Fig Practice #3Sig Fig Practice #3
3.24 m + 7.0 m
Calculation Calculator says: Answer
10.24 m 10.2 m
100.0 g - 23.73 g 76.27 g 76.3 g
0.02 cm + 2.371 cm 2.391 cm 2.39 cm
713.1 L - 3.872 L 709.228 L 709.2 L
1818.2 lb + 3.37 lb 1821.57 lb 1821.6 lb
2.030 mL - 1.870 mL 0.16 mL 0.160 mL
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Converting Celsius to KelvinConverting Celsius to Kelvin
Kelvins = C + 273 °C = Kelvins - 273
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Properties of Properties of MatterMatterExtensive propertiesExtensive properties
Intensive propertiesIntensive properties
Volume
MassEnergy Content (think Calories!)
depend on the amount of matter that is present.
do not depend on the amount of matter present.
Melting point
Boiling point
Density
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Three PhasesThree Phases
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Phase Phase DifferencesDifferences
SolidSolid – definite volume and shape; particles packed in fixed positions.LiquidLiquid – definite volume but indefinite shape; particles close together but not in fixed positionsGasGas – neither definite volume nor definite shape; particles are at great distances from one anotherPlasma – high temperature, ionized phase of matter as found on the sun.
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Classification of Matter
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Separation of a MixtureSeparation of a Mixture
The constituents of the mixture retain The constituents of the mixture retain their identity and may be separated by their identity and may be separated by physical means.physical means.
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Separation of a MixtureSeparation of a Mixture
The components of dyes such as ink may be separated by paper chromatography.
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Separation of a MixtureSeparation of a Mixture
Distillation
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Organization of MatterOrganization of Matter
MatterMatter
Mixtures:a) Homogeneous (Solutions)b) Heterogeneous
Pure SubstancesPure Substances
Compounds ElementsElements
AtomsAtoms
NucleusNucleus ElectronsElectrons
Protons NeutronsNeutrons
QuarksQuarks QuarksQuarks
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Separation of a CompoundSeparation of a CompoundThe Electrolysis of water
Water Hydrogen + Oxygen
H2O H2 + O2
Reactant Products
Compounds must be separated by chemical means.
With the application of electricity, water can be separated into its elements