Coreinnermost zone of the earth, mostly nickel and iron

Mantlecontains molten rock, above core

Magmamolten rock inside the earth

Asthenosphereouter mantle, semi-molten rock

Lithospherebrittle outermost layer of the earth

Convectioncauses movement of hot materials towards surface

Hot spotsweak areas in crust where hot molten materials reach surface

Plate Tectonicstheory that crustal plates on surface are in motion

Crustal Platepiece of earth's crust

Subductionone crustal plate converging under another

Volcanovent in Earth's surface that emits gas, ash and molten lava

Divergent Plate Boundarytwo crustal plates move apart

Seafloor Spreadingdiverging plates underwater

Convergent Plate Boundarytwo crustal plates move together

Transform Fault Boundarytwo crustal plates slide along side each other

Faultcrack in the earth's crust

Fault Zonesarea surrounding crack in the earth's crust

Earthquakesrocks of the lithosphere rupture and unexpectedly slip along fault

Seismic Activitygeologic activity surrounding a fault zone

Epicenterpoint on surface of earth above earthquake

Richter Scalereports magnitude of earthquake, logarthmic

Mineralssolid chemical substances with uniform crystalline structures

Rock Cycleforms new rock by erosion, compression and heat

Igenous Rockrock formed from hardened molten materials

Intrusiverock formed inside earth, small crystals, igneous

Extrusiverock formed outside earth, large crystals, igneous

Fracturescracks formed when rocks cool

Sedimentary Rockrock formed from compression and compaction of eroded rock particles

Metamorphic Rockrock formed from heating and compressing other rocks

Weatheringwearing away of rock from wind, rain and certain chemicals

Physical Weatheringmechanical breakdown of rock by water and wind

Chemical Weatheringbreakdown of rock by chemical reactions, dissolving of elements

Acid Precipitationacidic atmospheric moisture that breaks down rocks and minerals

Erosionphysical removal of rock fragments

Depositionaccumulation or depositing of eroded material

Soilmixture of geologic, chemical and biological components that support plant growth

Parent Materialrocks and minerals that make up soil and other rocks

Topographylay of the land, surface slope and arrangement of landscape

Soil Horizonslayers of soil that depend on climate, vegetation and parent material

O-Horizonorganic top layer of soil, contains leaf litter

A-Horizontopsoil layer

E-Horizonzone of leaching, nutrients removed

B-Horizonsubsoil, composed primarily of mineral material, low organics

C-Horizonweathered parent material

Texturedetermined by percentages of sand, silt, and clay

Soil Pyramidused to determine soil texture

Cation Exchange Capacitynutrient holding capacity of soil

Base Saturationmeasure of the proportion of soil bases to soil acids

Soil Degradationloss of some or all of the ability of soils to support growth

Crustal Abundanceaverage concentration of an element in the crust

Oresconcentrated accumulations of minerals from which valuable materials can be extracted

Metalselements with properties that allow them to conduct electricity

Reservethe known quantity of the resource that can be economically recovered

Surface Miningmining operations above ground

Strip Miningremoval of strips of soil and rock to expose ore

Mining Spoilsunwanted waste material from mining

Open-Pit Mininglarge pit or hole in the ground for easy extraction of materials

Mountaintop Removalminers remove mountaintop to extact materials

Placer Miningprocess of looking for metals or minerals in stream sediment

Subsurface Mining

mining operations below ground

Mining Law of 1872regulates the mining of materials on federal land

Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977requires mining companies to restore land after mining operations

tragedy of the commonsthe tendency of a shared, limited resource to become depleted because people act from self-interest for short-term gain

externalitythe unintended side effect of an action that affects something not involved in the action and is not included in the purchasing price etc.

maximum sustainable yieldthe maximum amount that can be harvested without compromising the future availability of that resource

national parka tract of land declared by the national government to be public property used for scientific, educational, and recreational use

managed resource protected areasallows for the sustained use of biological, mineral, and recreational resources

habitat management areasareas actively managed to maintain biologial communities

nature reserves and wilderness areasareas established to protect species and ecosystems

protected landscapes and seascapesareas combined with the nondestructive use of natural resources with oppurtunities for tourism and recreation (orchards, villages, beaches)

national monumentsareas set aside to protect unique sites of special natural or cultural interest (Arc de Triomphe

resource conservation ethicstates that people should maximize resource use based on the greatest good for everyone

multiple use landspublic lands that can be used for recreation, grazing, timber harvesting, and mineral extraction, wildlife preserving, or scentific research

bureau of land managementUsed for grazing, mining, timber harvesting, and recreation

united states forest serviceService used for timber harvesting, grazing, and recreation

national park serviceService used for recreation and conservation

fish and wildlife serviceService used for wildlife conservation, hunting, and recreation

rangelandsdry, open grasslands used for cattle grazing (the most common use for land in the USA)

clearcuttinga timber harvesting technique that involves removing all or almost all the trees within an area. This has a big short term profit. Quick growing trees will do well with a lot of sunlight. This technique increases wind and water erosion, sediments nearby streams, harms aquatic populatins, mudslides, heating of water

selective cuttinga timber harvesting technique that involves the removal of few trees or relatively small numbers of trees from among many in a forest. This produces optimum growth from shade tolerant trees. It is a less extensively damaging technique. Transporting logs can lead to road creation and soil impaction

ecologically sustainable forestryan approach that has a goal of maintaining all species in as close a natural state as possible

tree plantationslarge areas typically planted with a single rapidly growing tree species

prescribed burna deliberate fire set to reduce the accumulation of dead biomass

national environmental policy actAn act from 1969 that mandates an environmental assessment of all projects involving federal money or federal permits

environmental impact statementA NEPA rule that require an outline of the scope and purpose of a federal project. It must describe the environmental context, suggest alternative aproaches to the project and analyzes the environmental impact of each alternative

environmental mitigation plana plan that states how a developer will address the environmental impact of a project or building

endangered species act of 1973A 1973 law designed to protect species from extinction

national wildlife refugesthe only federal public lands managed for the primary purpose of protecting wildlife

national wilderness areasareas set aside with the intent of preserving large tracts of intact ecosystems or landscapes

suburbanareas sourrounding metropolitan centers with low population densities

exurbansimilar to suburban areas but not connected to any central city or densely populated area

urban sprawlthe creation of urbanized areas that spread into rural areas and remove clear bo

undaries between the two

urban blightthe degradation of the built and social environments of the city that often accompanies and accelerates migration to the suburbs

highway trust fundA U.S. federal fund that pays for the construction and maintenance of roads and highways begun by the Highway Revenue Act of 1956

induced demandwhen an increase in the supply of a good causes demand to grow

zoninga planning tool developed in the 20s to seperate industry and business from residential neighborhoods

smart growthstratagies that encourage the development of sustainable healthy communities. They include mixed land uses, creating choice in housing opportunities and walkable neighborhoods, compact building design, a sense of place, preserved spaces of beauty, vareity of transportation, etc.

stakeholderspeople with an interest in a particular place or issue

transit oriented developmentA mixed-use residential or commercial area designed to maximize access to public transport, and often incorporates features to encourage transit ridership

infillthe process of filling in empty or rundown parts of a city with new development

urban growth boundariesA regional boundary, set in an attempt to control urban sprawl by mandating that the area inside the boundary be used for higher density urban development and the area outside to be used for lower density development. Used by local governments as a guide to zoning and land use decisions

eminent domainthe right of the state to take private property for public use

multi-use zoningA zoning classification that allows retail and high-density residential development to coexist in the same area.

subsidized mortgageshousing payments that are artificially low because of federal help through the Federal Housing Adminstration, usually for newly-built houses in the low-density suburbs

sense of placePeople's attachment to the region that they perceive as their home.

preventing the tragedy of the commons1) private ownership holds owner responsible for environmental harm, and prevents externalization of cost; 2) regulation by gov't prevents overuse; 3) self-regulation by communities/users prevents overuse

International Categories of Public Lands

National Parks, Managed Resource Protected Areas, Strict Nature Reserves and Wilderness Areas, Habitat/Species Management Areas, Protected Landscapes and Seascapes, National Monuments International Categories of Public Lands

consequences of clear-cuttingincreases wind and water erosion, harms aquatic populations, causes mudslides, raises water temperatures, reduces soil quality(fire, herbicides), contaminates water, fragments habitats, decreases biodiversity

consequences of selective cuttingless impact, but road construction fragments habitats and compacts soil, leading to loss of biodiversity, nutrients,and reduction in water infiltration

MalnourishedHaving a diet that lacks the correct balances of proteins, carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals.

UndernutritionThe condition in which not enough calories are ingested to maintain health.

Food SecurityA condition in which people have access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs for an active and healthy life.

Food InsecurityA condition in which people do not have adequate access to food.

FamineThe condition in which food insecurity is so extreme that large numbers of deaths occur in a given area over a relatively short period.

OvernutritionIngestion of too many calories and improper foods

Industrial AgricultureAgriculture that applies the techniques of mechanization and standardization.

Agribusiness(AKA Industrial Agriculture) Agriculture that applies the techniques of mechanization and standardization.

Energy SubsidyThe energy input per calorie of food produced.

Green RevolutionA shift in agricultural practices in the twentieth century that included new management techniques, mechanization, fertilization, irrigation, and improved crop varieties, and resulted in increased food output.

Economics of ScaleThe observation that average costs of production fall as output increases.

WaterloggingA form of soil degradation that occurs when soil remains under water for prolonged periods.

SalinizationA form of soil degradation that occurs when the small amount of salts in irrigation water becomes highly concentrated on the soil surface through evaporation.

Organic FertilizersFertilizer composed of organic matter from plants and animals.

Synthetic or Inorganic FertilizersFertilizer produced commercially, normally with the use of fossil fuels.

MonocroppingAn agricultural method that utilizes large plantings of a single species or variety.

PesticidesA substance, either natural or synthetic, that kills or controls organisms that people consider pests.

InsecticidesA pesticide that targets species of insects and other invertebrates.

HerbicidesA pesticide that targets plant species that compete with crops.

Broad Spectrum PesticideA pesticide that kills many different types of pests.

Selective PesticideA pesticide that targets a narrower range of organisms.

PersistentA pesticide that remains in the environment for a long time.

BioaccumulationAn increased concentration of a chemical within an organism over time.

NonpersistantA pesticide that breaks down rapidly, usually in weeks or months.

ResistantAn individual that survives a pesticide application.

Pesticide TreadmillA cycle of pesticide development, followed by pest resistance, followed by new pesticide development

Conventional Agriculure(AKA Industrial Agriculture) Agriculture that applies the techniques of mechanization and standardization.

DesertificationThe transformation of arable, productive land to desert or unproductive land due to climate change or destructive land use.

Nomadic GrazingFeeding herds of animals by moving them to seasonally productive feeding grounds, often over long distances.

Sustainable AgricultureAgriculture that fulfills the need for food and fiber while enhancing the quality of the soil, minimizing the use of nonrenewable resources, and allowing economic viability for the farmer.

Intercropping

An agricultural method in which two or more crop species are planted in the same field at the same time to promote a synergistic interaction.

Crop RotationsAn agricultural technique in which crop species in a field are alternated from season to season.

AgroforestryAn agricultural technique in which trees and vegetables are intercropped.

Contour PlowingAn agricultural technique in which plowing and harvesting are done parallel to the topographic contours of the land.

No-till AgricultureAn agricultural method in which farmers do not turn the soil between seasons, used as a means of reducing erosion.

Integrated Pest Management (IPM)An agricultural practice that uses a variety of techniques designed to minimize pesticide inputs.

Organic AgricultureProduction of crops with the goal of improving the soil each year without the use of synthetic pesticides or fertilizers.

Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations (CAFOs)A large indoor or outdoor structure used to raise animals at very high densities.

FisheryA commercially harvestable population of fish within a particular ecological region.

Fishery CollapseThe decline of a fish population by 90 percent or more.

BycatchThe unintentional catch of nontarget species while fishing.

Individual Transferable Quotas (ITOs)A fishery management program in which individual fishers are given a total allowable catch of fish in a season that they can either catch or sell.

AquacultureFarming aquatic organisms such as fish, shellfish, and seaweeds.

nonrenewable energy sourcean energy source with a finite supply, primarily the fossil fuels and nuclear fuels

fossil fuelsfuels derived from biological material that became fossilized millions of years ago

nuclear fuelsfuels derived from radioactive materials that give off energy

commercial energy sourcesenergy sources that are bought and sold

subsistence energy sourcesenergy sources gathered by individuals for their own immediate needs

energy carriersomething that can move and deliver energy in a convenient, usable form to end users

turbinea large device that resembles a fan or a jet engine/ a device with blades that can be turned by water, wind, steam, or exhaust gas from combustion that turns a generator in an electricity-producing plant

electrical grida network of interconnected transmission lines that joins power plants together and links them with end users of electricity

combined cyclenatural gas-fired power plant, which has two turbines and generators /a power plant that uses both exhaust gas from combustion that turns a generator in an electricity-producing plant

capacitya maximum electrical output/ in reference to an electricity -generating plant, the maximum electrical output

capacity factorthe fraction of the time a plant operates in a year

cogenerationthe use of a fuel to generate electricity and produce heat

coala solid fuel formed primarily from the remains of trees, ferns, and other plant materials that were preserved 280 million to 360 million years ago

petroleuma fluid mixture of hydrocarbons, water, and sulfur that occurs in underground deposits/ a fossil fuel that occurs in underground deposits, composed of a liquid mixture of hydrocarbons, water, and sulfur

crude oilliquid petroleum that is removed from the ground

oil sandsslow-flowing, viscous deposits of bitumen mixed with sand, water, and clay.

bitumenoften called tar or pitch, a degraded type of petroleum that forms when a petroleum deposit is not capped with nonporous rock/ a degraded petroleum that forms when petroleum migrates to the surface of Earth and is modified by bacteria; also called tar or pitch

CTL (coal to liquid)the technology to convert solid coal into a liquid fuel/ the process of converting solid coal into liquid fuel

energy intensitythe energy use per unit of gross domestic product

Hubbert curvea bell-shaped curve representing oil use and projecting both when world oil production will reach a maximum and when we will run out of oil

Peak oilthe point at which half the total known oil supply is used up

fissiona nuclear reaction in which a neutron strikes a relatively large atomic nucleus, which then splits into two or more parts

fuel rodscylindrical tube that enclose nuclear fuel within a nuclear reactor

control rodscylindrical devices that can be inserted between the fuel rods to absorb excess neutrons, thus slowing or stopping the fission reaction

radioactive wasteNuclear fuel that can no longer produce enough heat to be useful in a power plant but continues to emit radioactivity

Becquerel (Bq)unit that measures the rate at which a sample of radioactive material decays; 1 Bq = decay of 1 atom or nucleus persecond

curiea unit of measure for radiation; 1 curie = 37 billion decays per second

nuclear fusiona reaction that occurs when lighter nuclei are forced together to produce heavier nuclei.

biomassThe total mass of all living matter in a specific area

renewableIn energy management, an energy source that is either potentially renewable or nondepletable

energy conservationThe implementation of methods to use less energy

tiered rateA billing system used by some electric companies in which customers pay higher rates as their use goes up

energy efficiencyThe ratio of the amount of work done to the total amount of energy introduced to the system

peak demandThe greatest quantity of energy used at any one time

passive solar energyA method of converting solar energy into heat without pumps or fans (passive solar design- construction designed to take advantage of solar radiation without active technology)

thermal inertia

The ability of a material to maintain its temperature

modern carbonCarbon in biomass that was recently in the atmosphere

fossil carbonCarbon in fossil fuels

carbon neutralAn activity that does not change atmospheric CO2 concentrations

net removalThe process of removing more than is replaced by growth, typically used when referring to carbon

biofuelsLiquid fuels created from processed or refined biomass

ethanolAlcohol made by converting starches and sugars from plant material into alcohol and CO2

biodieselA diesel substitute produced by extracting and chemically altering oil from plants

flex-fuel vehiclesA vehicle that runs on either gasoline or ethanol

hydroelectricityelectricity generated by the kinetic energy of moving water

run-of-the-riverHydroelectricity generation in which water is retained behind a low dam or no dam

water impoundmentThe storage of water in a reservoir behind a dam

tidal energyEnergy that comes from the movement of water driven by the gravitational pull of the Moon

siltationThe accumulation of sediments, primarily silt, on the bottom of a reservoir

active solar energyEnergy captured from sunlight with intermediate technologies (pumps or photovoltaic cell)

photovoltaic solar cellsA system of capturing energy from sunlight and converting it directly into electricity

geothermal energyHeat energy that comes from the natural radioactive decay of elements deep within Earth

ground source heat pumpsA technology that transfers heat from the ground to a building

wind energyEnergy generated from the kinetic energy of moving air

wind turbineA turbine that converts wind energy into electricity

fuel cellAn electrical-chemical device that converts fuel, such as hydrogen, into an electrical current

electrolysisThe application of an electric current to water molecules to split them into hydrogen and oxygen

smart gridAn effcient, self-regulating electricity distribution network that accepts any source of electricity and distributes it effectively to end users

Water Pollutionpollution of the water in rivers and lakes

Point Sourcespoint, from specific location such as a pipe. Non-point, from over an area such as runoff

Nonpoint Sourcesbroad, and diffuse areas, rather than points, from which pollutants enter bodies of surface water or air

Wastewaterwater mixed with waste matter

Oxygen-demanding Wasteorganic matter that enters a body of water and feeds microbes that are decomposers

Biochemical Oxygen DemandAmount of oxygen required by aquatic bacteria to decompose a given load of organic waste;a measure of water pollution

Eutrophicationprocess by which a body of water becomes too rich in dissolved nutrients, leading to plant growth that depletes oxygen

Cultural Eutrophicationan increase in biological productivity and ecosystem succession caused by human activities

Dead Zonesa area of water where there is no oxygen left

Indicator Speciesspecies that serve as early warnings that a community or ecosystem is being degraded

Fecal Coliform Bacteriabacteria found in the intestinal tracts of warm-blooded animals

Septic System

small waste water system used by a single home or business

Septic Tanklarge tank where solid matter or sewage is disintegrated by bacteria

Sludgegooey mixture of toxic chemicals, infectious agents, and settled solids removed from wastewater at a sewage treatment plant

Septagethe middle layer of fairly clear water, contains large quantities of bacteria and may also contain pathogenic organisms and inorganic nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorous

Leach Fieldthe ground area around a septic tank through which wastewater filters after leaving the tank

Manure Lagoonshuman-made ponds lined with rubber built to handle large quantities of manure produced by livestock

Acid Depositionthe return to earth as rain or snow of the sulfate or nitrate salts of acids produced by commercial and industrial activities

PCBssynthetic chemicals containing chlorine that are used in the manufacture of plastics and other industrial products, become stored in the tissue of animals, and also persist in the environment

PBDEssynthetic compunds that provide fire retardant properties and are used in a diverse array of consumer products including computers tvs plastics and furniture

Thermal Pollutiona temperature increase in a body of water that is caused by human activity and that has a harmful effect on water quality and on the ability of that body of water to support life

Thermal Shocksudden increase or decrease in temperature that puts great stress on a fired clay body, causing it to crack, When a source of thermal pollution first starts of stops, fish and other organisms adapted to particular temperature range can be killed by the abrupt change in water temperature

Coal ScrubbersInstalled to coal-burning facilities to combat the problem of acids being released to the atmosphere. They pass the hot gases through a limestone mixture, which the limestone reacts with the acidic gases and removes them from the hot gases that subsequency leave the smokestack.

Offshore PlatformsA method to extract oil underseas. There are 5,000 offshore oil platforms in North America and another 3,000 across the world. Leaks are fairly common.

BP Oil SpillAn oil spill in 2010 in the Gulf of Mexico, caused by an explosion in the Deepwater Horizon platform caused a pipe to break on the ocean floor nearly 1.6 km (1 mile) below the surface of the ocean. An estimated 780 million liters (206 milli

on gallons) of crude oil was spilled.

Exxon Valdez Oil SpillAn oil spill in 1989 in the coast of Alaska, the tanker Exxon Valdez spilled 41 million liters (11 million gallons). As a result, 250,000 seabirds, 2,800 sea otters, 300 harbor seals, and 22 killer whales were killed.

Clean Water ActA law passed in 1972 that expanded the Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1948, improves water quality standards, requires the EPA to establish standards to control pollutants that are harmful to human health and welfare

Safe Drinking Water ActA law passed in 1974, 1986, 1996, sets the national standards for safe drinking water. Under the Safe Drinking Water Act, the EPA is responsible for establishing maximum contaminant levels (MCL) for 77 different elements on substances in both surface water and groundwater.

Maximum Contaminant Levelsthe greatest amount of a contaminant that can be present in drinking water without causing risk to human health

Gray WaterWastewater from baths, showers, bathrooms, and washing machines

air pollutionthe introduction of chemicals, particulate matter, or microorganisms into the atmosphere at concentrations high enough to harm plants, animals, and materials such as buildings, or to alter ecosystems

particulate matter/ particulates/ particlessolid or liquid particles suspended in air and comes from combustion of wood, animal manure, and other biofuels, coal, oil, and gasoline

hazereduced visibility caused primarily when particulate matter from air pollution scatters light

photochemical oxidantsclass of air pollutants formed as a result of sunlight acting on compounds such as nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide

smogthe resulting mixture of oxidants and particulate matter

photochemical smogsmog dominated by oxidants such as ozone and sometimes called Los Angeles-type smog or brown smog

sulfurous smogsmog dominated by sulfur dioxide and sulfate compounds and sometimes called London-type smog or gray smog

volatile organic compounds (VOCs)organic compounds that become vapors at typical atmospheric temperatures

primary pollutantspolluting compounds that come directly out of the smokestack, exhaust pipe, or natural emission source Examples: CO, CO2, SO2, NOx, & most suspended particulate matter

secondary pollutantsprimary pollutants that have undergone transformation in the presence of sunlight, water, oxygen, or other compounds Examples: ozone, sulfate (SO4 2-), nitrate (NO3-), etc.

thermal inversiona situation where a relatively warm later of air at mid-altitude covers a layer of cold, dense air below

inversion layerthe warm layer that traps emissions that then accumulate beneath it

chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)a family of organic compounds whose properties make them ideal for use in refrigeration and air-conditioning. It is the major source of chlorine in the stratosphere

asbestosa long, thin, fibrous silicate mineral with insulating properties

sick building syndromea buildup of toxic compounds and pollutants in an airtight space; seen in newer buildings with good insulation and tight seals against air leaks

Tropospheric ozone Photochemical oxidants-class of air pollutants formed as a result of sunlight acting on compounds such as nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide Ozone is the most frequently measured photochemical oxidant in the troposphere

Catlytic converterreduces nitrogen oxide and carbon monoxide emissions Control of particulate matter

baghouse filter (page 254)An air pollution control device that the particles (gases/particulate matter) are removed by a series of filter bags that physically filter out the particles. Can remove almost 100 percent of particulate matter emissions. Also known as fabric filters.

electrostatic precipitator (page 254)An air pollution control device that use an electrical charge to make particles coalesce so the ycan be removed. Polluted air enters the precipitator and the electrically charge particles withing are attracted to negative or positive charges on the sides of the precipitator. The particles collect and relatively clean gas exits the precipitator.

scrubber (page 255)An air pollution control device that uses a combination of water and air that actually seperates and removes particles. Particles are removed in the scrubber in a liquid or sludge form and clean gas exits. Also used to reduce emissions of sulfur dioxide.

carbon monoxideAn air pollutant that is a colorless, odorless gas that is formed during incomplete combustion, a common emission in vehicle exhaust, malfunctioning exhaust systems, household heaters, and natural gas heaters. Carbon monoxide binds with hemoglobin and interferes with oxygen transport in the blood, leading to oxygen deprivation.

radonA radioactive gas with an isotope of 222, that occurs naturally from the decay of uranium, exists in granitic and other rocks and soils. Can lead to lung cancer due to the gas seeping through cracks in the foundation or soil, drinking water, groundwater, by attaching to dust and other particles in the air. Also forms a byproduct called Polonium-210.