Chapter One Introduction to Psychology and Methods of Research.
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Transcript of Chapter One Introduction to Psychology and Methods of Research.
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Chapter One
Introduction to Psychology and
Methods of Research
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Did You Know That…
• One of the founders of modern psychology was such a poor student that he was actually left back a grade in school?
• A movement that once dominated psychology believed that psychologists should turn away from the study of the mind?
• The school of psychology originated by Sigmund Freud holds that we are generally unaware of our underlying motives?
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Did You Know That… (Cont’d)
• A major school of psychology was inspired by the view from a train?
• A student successfully completed all PhD requirements at Johns Hopkins University but was refused a doctorate because she was a woman?
• You can obtain listings and abstracts of articles from major psychology journals by using your home computer (and much of it is free of charge)?
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Module 1.1
Foundations of Modern Psychology
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Module 1.1 Preview Questions
• What is psychology?
• What are the origins of psychology?
• What are the major early schools of psychology?
• What are the major contemporary perspectives in psychology?
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What Is Psychology?
• The science of behavior and mental processes
• What makes psychology scientific?• Evidence is valued over opinion and tradition.
• What is meant by “behavior”?• Anything an organism does
• What are “mental processes”?• Our private experiences
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Origins of Psychology
• The word psychology is derived from two Greek roots:• Psyche, meaning “mind”• Logos, meaning “study” or “knowledge”
• Psychological inquiries can be traced back to Ancient Greece.
• Remained largely of interest to philosophers, theologians, and writers for several thousand years
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Founding of Psychology as an Independent Science
• Usually credited to the German scientist, Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920)• Established the first scientific laboratory
dedicated to study of psychology in 1879
• Marked transition of psychology from philosophy to science
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Figure 1.1: Psychology, the Early Days: A Timeline
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Figure 1.1: Psychology, the Early Days: A Timeline (Cont’d)
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Wundt, Titchner, and Structuralism
• Wundt was interested in studying people’s mental experiences.• Used method called introspection
• Edward Titchner (1867-1927) brought Wundt’s teachings and methods to US.
• Wundt and Titchner are identified with school of psychology known as structuralism.
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William James and Functionalism
• William James (1842-1910) founded the school of psychology known as functionalism.
• Focused on the roles or functions that underlie mental processes• Why we do what we do
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John Watson and Behaviorism
• Watson (1878-1958) founded the school of psychology known as behaviorism.• Psychology should be a science of behavior
only.
• Believed that environment molds behavior
• By 1920s, behaviorism became dominant force in American psychology.
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B. F. Skinner (1904-1990)
• Studied how behavior is shaped by rewards and punishments
• Principles of learning apply to animals and humans alike.
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Max Wertheimer and Gestalt Psychology
• Wertheimer (1880-1943) was fascinated by the illusion of movement by objects in the distance.
• Founded Gestalt psychology• How does the brain organize and structure
our perceptions of the world?
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Figure 1.2: What Is This?
Gestalt maxim:“The whole is greater than the sum of the parts.”
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Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) and Psychoanalysis
• An Austrian physician
• Founded view of psychology called the psychodynamic perspective• Focused on the unconscious mind• Emphasized importance of early childhood
experiences
• Led to form of psychotherapy known as psychoanalysis
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Contemporary Psychology
• Behavioral Perspective• Social-cognitive theory• Behavioral therapy
• Psychodynamic Perspective
• Humanistic Perspective• “Third Force” in psychology
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Contemporary Psychology (Cont’d)
• Physiological Perspective• Evolutionary psychology
• Cognitive Perspective
• Sociocultural Perspective
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Module 1.2
Psychologists: Who They Are and What They Do
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Module 1.2 Preview Questions
• What are the various specialties in psychology?
• What changes have occurred in the ethnic and gender characteristics of psychologists over time?
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Types of Psychological Research
• Basic Research: Focuses on acquiring knowledge, even if no practical application
• Applied Research: Focuses on finding solutions to specific problems
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Figure 1.3: Psychologists’ Areas of Specialization
Source: American Psychological Association, Research Office, Current Major Field of APA Membership by Membership Status 2002, Updated April 2004.
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Figure 1.4: Where Psychologists Work
Source: American Psychological Association, Employment Settings for PhD Psychologists: 2001, APA Research Office. July 2003.
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Major Specialty Areas
• Experimental • Comparative • Physiological
• Clinical • Counseling • School • Educational • Developmental
• Personality • Social • Environmental• Industrial/
Organizational • Health • Consumer
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Emerging Specialty Areas
• Neuropsychology• Clinical neuropsychology
• Geropsychology
• Forensic psychology
• Sports psychology
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Professional Psychology: Becoming More Diverse
• Women pioneers• Christine Ladd-Franklin (1847-1930)• Mary Whiton Calkins (1863-1930)• Margaret Floy Washburn (1871-1939)
• African American pioneers• Gilbert Haven Jones (1883-1966)• Francis Sumner (1895-1954)• J. Henry Alston• Kenneth Clark
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Figure 1.5: Ethnicity of PhD Psychologists
Source: National Science Foundation, Division of Science Resource Statistics, Science and Engineering Degrees, by Race/Ethnicity of Recipients, 1992-2001, NSF, 04318, Project Officers Susan T. Hill, and Jean M. Johnson (Arlington, VA), April 2004.
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Figure 1.6: Women PhD Recipients in Psychology
Source: American Psychological Association, Research Office, Demographic Shifts in Psychology, September 2003.
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Module 1.3
Research Methods in Psychology
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Module 1.3 Preview Questions
• What is the scientific method, and what are its four general steps?
• What are the major research methods psychologists use?
• What ethical guidelines must psychologists follow in their research?
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Figure 1.7: General Steps in the Scientific Method
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Case Study Method
• In-depth study of one or more individuals
• Information drawn from interviews, observation, or written records
• Problems with case studies:• Limitations of memory• Withholding of important information• Concerns over making favorable impressions
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Survey Method
• Information gathered from target groups of people through the use of:• Structured interviews• Questionnaires
• Importance of random sampling• Problems:
• Limitations of memory• Social desirability bias• Volunteer bias
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Naturalistic Observation
• Direct observation of behavior in natural environment
• Problems:• May behave differently when aware being
observed• Potential observer biases
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Correlational Method
• Used to examine the relationship between two variables
• Correlation coefficient is a statistical measure of association• Can range from -1.00 to +1.00• Positive vs. negative correlation coefficients
• Limitation: Correlation is not causation!
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Benefits of the Correlational Method
• Offers clues to underlying causes
• Can identify groups at high risk for physical or behavioral problems
• Increases understanding of relationships between variables or events
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Experimental Method
• Allows for investigation of cause-and-effect relationships
• Independent Variables: Factors that are manipulated in an experiment
• Dependent Variables: Outcome variables believed to be dependent on the independent variable
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Experimental Method (Cont’d)
Participants
Independent variable: control group
Independent variable: experimental group
Random Assignment
Measure dependent variable: Is there a difference?
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Experimental Method (Cont’d)
• Controlling for placebo effects
• Controlling for expectancy effects• Single-blind and double-blind procedures
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Anatomy of a Research Study: To Shoot or Not to Shoot?
• Study Hypothesis• What they predicted would occur
• Procedure• What they did and how they did it• The experimental design
• Results and Discussion• What they found and what it means• Results of the study
• References Continue
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Experimental Design in Police Officer’s Dilemma Game
Race of Target
Object
African American White
Gun
No Gun
Return
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Figure 1.8: Reaction Times in Police Officer’s Dilemma Study
Source: Adapted from Corel et al, 2002.
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Figure 1.9: Fateful Decisions: The Role of Stereotyping
ReturnSource: Adapted from Corel et al, 2002.
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Ethical Principles in Psychological Research
• Purpose of code of ethics is to respect the dignity and welfare of clients and research participants.
• Role of ethics review committees
• Role of informed consent
• Use of deceptive practices
• Importance of confidentiality
• Ethical guidelines for animal research
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Application: Module 1.4
Becoming a Critical Thinker
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Module 1.4 Preview Question
• What are the key features of critical thinking?
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What Is Critical Thinking?
• The adoption of a questioning attitude• Careful weighing of evidence• Thoughtful analysis of others’ claims and
arguments
• Requires a willingness to challenge conventional wisdom and common knowledge
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Features of Critical Thinking
• Question everything.
• Clarify what you mean.
• Avoid oversimplifying.
• Avoid overgeneralizing.
• Don’t confuse correlation with causation.
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Features of Critical Thinking (Cont’d)
• Consider the assumptions upon which claims are based.
• Examine sources of claims.
• Question the evidence upon which claims are based.
• Consider alternative ways of explaining claims.
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Thinking Critically About Online Information
• Don’t suspend skeptical attitude when online!
• Ask questions such as:• Who is posting the material?• Is the source a well-respected institution or
one with no apparent credentials and perhaps an ax to grind?
• Most trustworthy online information comes from well-known scientific sources.