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CHAPTER – I
INTRODUCTION
“All of us are in a position to interpret and shape our own well-being through
our understanding of our bodies, and through choices in our everyday lives
about diet, exercise, consumption patterns and general lifestyle.”
- Giddens
CONTEXT OF THE STUDY:
In social action sociology social movements have a place well
identified as the prime and effective movers in the direction of changing
behavior of individuals or the collectivities almost irreversible way, if not
total. Social, economic, political and otherwise life of an area exposes to
this force put up by the collective action along with general lead given by
its leaders, the movement elites. The movement changes the living and
thinking of people, and, push structural changes in the groups. Some
movements appeal specific way in the segmented population, while some
other movements have very general appeal like in the areas i.e. security,
safety, health, education, social practices, environment and peace; the
areas now are covered under New Social Movement, rather traditional
one.
Health scenario in India presently with Rs.12,050 crore budget
operated under National Rural Health Mission (Kurukshetra Journal,
April 2012) and also world over has attracted special interests and the
attention not only of the governments but of private players as well.
However, significant suspicion about honest delivery to the target
population sustains every time. At this stage of history of public health
two things emerged simultaneously; one, medical sophistication and
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another growth of chronic and difficult diseases, causing panic among the
masses. The percolation of these high diseases from upper classes to low
and higher age groups to lower i.e. to youngsters which includes the
„killer‟ diseases heart diseases, hepatitis, cancer, AIDS, diabetes, obesity,
asthma and lungs disorders etc. as a disturbing fact of health. The case of
Punjab is in point where 6000 school children are advised to be treated
for heart ailments by Post Graduate Institute of Medical Science,
Chandigarh (The Tribune, 18thOctober, 2008).
All this is attributed broadway to chemicalization of food and
unhealthy lifestyle however, other determinants like educational status,
housing conditions, economic status, social relationships, genetic and
environmental conditions are included, advancing aging as well (The
Times of India: 22nd
May, 2013).
The gravity of challenge to health problem reportedly is indicated
with the facts and figures put here. The health surveys suggest that
women are more crises prone than men, urban people than rural. The
corporate employees at Gurgaon in 60% cases were the victims of
different diseases because of their working conditions and lifestyles (The
Tribune: 14th
August, 2012). The incidence of severe diseases is estimated
greater in developing countries. The larger population of India and China
estimatedly would be in the grip of serious diseases like diabetes, heart
ailments and cancers (The Hindu: 19th September, 2011 and 2
nd May,
2012). The first lady of America Michelle Obama cautioned the
concerned quarters in U.S.A. about the increasing tendency of obesity, as
it was 32% among American children, however, in India with around
30% urban population is tolerating 15% obese children (The Tribune:
22nd
December, 2010) even Indian army is encountered with its 30%
military personnel overweight, 22% with high cholesterol level due to
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lack of exercise as is revealed in the sample survey conducted by defence
ministry and Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) jointly (Times
of India: 6th
September, 2011) and more Denmark, the Nordic country has
imposed a „fat tax‟ on butter and oily liquids „to curb unhealthy eating
habits‟ by the approval of the Parliament to enhance the expectancy of
life of Danes (The Hindu: 4th
October, 2011). Interestingly, obesity not
only a problem to human health but it also creates environmental worries
where obese generated additional weight equivalent to 24.2 crores of
people as estimated by London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine
Scientists (Punjab Kesari: 18th
June, 2012).
Health hazard is the global problem. United States is alarmed by
the fact of rapidly growing disability and chronic health problem and
simultaneously uneasy inability to provide medical care to its population.
The cost factor is also a load on financial liability at the government now
Americans, “paying more attention to the kind of lifestyle they choose to
live and to the kind of health behaviour they decide to engage in” (Harold
G. Koenig et.al. 2001).
To comply with the demand and responsibility of public health, the
political order responds through institutionalization of health services
with huge budgetary allocation. The nation state comes out with health
policy and health programming for the masses. In addition, W.H.O. and
UNICEF conduct the health surveys and provide expertise advices and
finance to the member governments. The international bodies on health
and related sectors of human life now celebrates some „days‟ like
Diabetes Day, Heart Care day and likewise, along with family decade
actually the family is very crucial element in shaping the lifestyle and is
affected itself because of the lifestyle of its members. In Haryana, a
decade before the women folk were in arms against the liquor addicts and
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attracted the attention of media, politicians, administrators and general
public both in rural and urban areas as their protest appeared with a
sensitive technique that was „ghagra dalna‟ in the neck of male addicts
all it was to save their family economy and the relationship. Perhaps,
Mahatma Gandhi is the tallest personality who was outspoken against the
liquor use as he said that to go for wine, to go towards furnace that
destroys the body, mind and soul but the states are liberal towards liquor
policy and despite the efforts of the governments as placed in Directive
Principles of State Policy enshrined in the Indian Constitution the liquor
menace is going up and fresh entry of drug mafia taking their items to the
youth even of rural areas that create ruins of many families and eruption
of family violence. The scenario is -
„mareej- e- ishq pe rehmat khudaa ki,
maraj badhta gaya jyon-jyon dava kee‟
The media is doing a commendable work on the front of public
health as it provides in print and electronic channels a space to the news
items, articles from experts, activities of World and National bodies on
health and the health problems of common people in rural and urban
areas with regards chronic diseases and the health policies of the
government in critical form and above all media has covered the health
social movement raised by Ramdev and other personalities in the field of
yoga like B.K.S. Iyengar and Vikram abroad it helped the globalization of
yoga.
Health care movement as appeared world over as most
humanitarian and politically potent enterprise. Private and public
investments contribute to the health care system both in institutional and
financial terms. Healthcare expenditure in India is largely private with
80% of the total vis-à-vis governments‟ 20%, in comparison to
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capitalistic U.K., just reverse, i.e. 20:80. Obviously the public sector role
is quite smaller and inadequate; and so the poor people have to spend
12% of their family income while rich sections spend 2% on health care
in India (NCAER report, 2000). In India, lion‟s share is spent on
dominant Allopathic system, out of total budget i.e. 2.5% of GDP and is
maintained by present political apparatus continuingly. And the spending
on alternative health care system has remained scanty. AYUSH stream
(Ayurveda, Yoga and Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha, and Homeopathy) has
been treated as complementary and alternative treatment system besides
the biomedicine system – Allopathy.
„Alternative health‟ in India survived despite the dominance of
modern allopathic medicine system (Dalal, A.K. and Ray Subba, 2005).
And the traditional system of medicine manages between 70-90% of all
sickness (Kleinman, 1978).
The alternative system of medicine has opened the door for the
autonomous interventions from individuals, trusts, NGOs, civil society
actors‟ etc. agencies. These actors with alternative health paradigm of
their own have come to change the health scenario of India today by
erecting alternative health medicine movements, proposing a varied range
of preventive, curative, promotional prescriptions in Ayurveda, Yoga and
Naturopathy, Siddha, Unani and Homeopathy. However, Homeopathy
has its roots in Germany.
This AYUSH complex of alternative system of treatment is gaining
prestige day by day among the general public. And, other innovative
health techniques are being brought to the public without the support of
government. However, alternative medicines are raised (Indian Board of
Alternative Medicine, Calcutta observation) curiously enough by lifestyle
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health social movements initiated by new service providers- Babas and
Swamis, preaching India‟s old medical heritage preserved in Susrut and
Charak Samhitas and Patanjali‟s Astang Yoga-Yama, Niyama, Asanas,
Pranayama, Pratyahara, Dharana, Dhyana, Samadhi (Balkrishana
Acharya, 2007) and which claimingly aims at providing complete “well
being” of body, mind and soul (W.H.O.). Moreover, the yoga and
Ayurveda as alternative therapies for lesser economic cost are relevant for
a poor country with larger population living below poverty line i.e. below
Rs. 32/- per day in urban areas and Rs. 26/- day in rural India.
Yoga Guru Baba Ramdev‟s health initiative or health solutions
have acquired worldwide acclaim and attention. His Pranayama
technique, roughly treated into the West but as an aerobic exercise,
registers however with „Great Claims‟ for the chronic and difficult
diseases like the cancer, AIDS, heart diseases and obesity, diabetes
besides normal ailments, which posed tremendous health challenge. The
people in larger number are attracted towards Yogic exercises and other
healing and curative therapies. Almost at every urban location in India
various groups of Yoga are in vogue with aim to get rid of these diseases,
claimingly and perceptibly.
But this program of curative and preventive medicine advocating a
drastic and visible change in the lifestyle of individual humans as a
necessary pre condition. Ramdev‟s health discourse is a cultural, spiritual
and physical knowledge package for the people seeking health remedy
and their well-being today „for world humanity‟ (Yog in Synergy with
Medical Science: 2007). The yoga now becomes in U.S. an industry of
30,000 crores where 16.5 million people practice yoga and the doubled
number shown took interest in yoga (Khareghat, Pheroze: The Tribune:
4th
November, 2011). It is to look upon this movement as the variable on
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the lifestyle of the people as yoga is a comprehensive strategy of all
round development and curing illness impacting directly and indirectly
many things among practitioners.
The sociological inquiry must address while the way the lifestyle
of larger members has seemingly undergone a change being subjected to
many pulls and pushes which observably might cause structural changes
in the families and its setting concomitantly.
OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY:
The present study was proceeded in with the following objectives:
1. To know the structural-functional efficacy of health movement
both as a collective action and as peculiar type of social movement.
2. To note the extent the lifestyles of people are changed under the
health social movement as variable upon that.
3. It was also the objective here to know about the changed family
setting/environment probably as a concomitant of the changes in
the lifestyle of the practitioners again under influence of new health
solutions advanced by Swami Ramdev.
4. To highlight the changes, if any, in gender relationship for the
better after yoga lifestyle adopted by the heads of the families.
5. It was also to know about the kind of social consciousness this
healthy lifestyle has generated.
6. And to assess the acceptance of yoga lifestyle by the people in city
with religious history.
7. And lastly, to assess how new helath initiative could succeed as a
generative force impelling on social capital reformation in families.
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RESEARCH QUESTIONS:
The following questions were investigated into the proposed research:
1. Who have been the yoga beneficiaries from Ramdev‟s health
prescriptions by their socio-economic features in the city of
Kurukshetra?
2. How lifestyle altered vide reallocation of time and money
resources under yoga health initiative raised by Swami Ramdev
among the sampled respondents of Kurukshetra town?
3. What have been the concomitant changes in the family settings as a
result of adoption of yoga ways of life and living by the
respondents?
RATIONALE OF THE STUDY:
The sociologists in recent years came to attend the problems in
health sector from sociological point of view. The sociologists and social
anthropologists, both, in recent years came to add theoretical core and
practical research. Andsome majors include - Giddens, Steve Taylor,
Scott and Fultcher, Mark Edberg, Insel P.M., Jeffrey C. Alexander, P.M.
Roth, and, W.H.O. also advising in the same line. Therein lifestyle
studies are steadily surging in sociological work.
Giddens (2001) observed thus one of the main areas of debate
concentrates on the relative importance of individual variables such as
lifestyle, behavior, diet, and cultural patterns against the environmental or
structural factors such as income distribution and property (p.145). And
more, “many of the conditions and illness for which individuals seek
alternative medical treatment seems to be the product of the modern age
itself”. He also noted “the growth of alternative medicine presents a
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number of interesting questions for sociologists to consider. First and
foremost, it is a fascinating reflection of the transformation occurring
within modern society” (p.143). However, Giddens Anthony did not
specify these transformations would entail what aspects.
Steve Taylor (1999:253) in chapter size writing on Health Illness
and Medicine observed that medicine and religion has connection and he
mentions thus –“there is also connection between sociological study of
medicine and religion. Some sociologists have argued that medicine has
taken over some of the social control functions that have traditionally
been associated with established religion and that in contemporary
societies the religious distinction between good and evil is being
increasingly replaced by the medical distinctions between healthy and
unhealthy”. Ramdev health initiative seemingly has placed back the
question of good and bad in matter of food culture and concept of sin in
behavioural context but he advanced his health agenda placing healthy
and unhealthy lifestyle. This agenda has chances of greater acceptance of
his eight-step/limbs yoga programme despite Hindu lifestyle as it is
designated.
Pescosolido et al. (2000) observed that medical sociology have
paid little attention to the agency-structure problem, yet it is clearly
central to theoretical discussions of health and lifestyles. This theoretical
framework is relevant and the researcher has taken note of this in which
health and lifestyles are closely inter-related where lifestyle is
independent variable and health is dependent.
Reddy Srinath K. (2006:21) see the interplay of social and
biological factors importance and records thus “the interplay of socio-
economic and biological factors is even more intimate and intricate in the
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so called lifestyle disorders………the lifestyle disorders are rapidly rising
in India, especially in the urban areas…” The researcher attempted the
social life situation regarding health in urban location of Kurukshetra.
L.G. Schiffman (2000:280) while counting the „other functions of
the family‟ mentions that family provides a lifestyle for its members
connecting it with consumer behavior saying “family lifestyle
commitments, including the allocation of time is greatly influencing
consumption patterns. For example, a series of diverse pressures on
moms has reduced the time that they have available for household
chores….”. The researcher derived lines to proceed in to attend the time
and resource allocations in accordance with the family lifestyle
commitments. However, Schiffman (2002) highlighted the changing
aspect of family in the sense that individualism is developed there and the
meaning of togetherness turning to „each person doing his/ her own
thing‟. Indian family has collectivist survivals still in urban areas and the
male heads of the family along with wives have lasting influence on rest
of the members. The researcher sees family in this perspective. Schiffman
as pointed out a very important and interesting instance to which the
author came across the findings of The Trends Research Institute about
“VOLUNTARY SIMPLICITY” among the top ten lifestyle trends of the
1990s where 15% consumers studied were seeking a simpler lifestyle
with reduced emphasis on ownership and possessions and accepting
favour credit cards, smaller homes in less populated communities but all
it simply because they were seeking new “reduced”, less extravagant
lifestyle by choices enjoying less stressful and lower salary career willing
to take 20% pay cut in return for working favour hours. These consumers
were the followers of a particular religion. Our yoga practitioners taken
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for study are having faith in Hindu asceticism as a value. This is to see
whether they are with voluntary simplicity in living.
Dr. Uton Muchtar Rafei the regional director, W.H.O. for South
East Asia in his speech made at second international conference on
lifestyle and health at New Delhi, 1999 observed that unhealthy lifestyle
of people is resulted in difficult non-communicable diseases because of
junk food without nutritive value, cigarette consumption, alcohol use and
non- exercising members. He pointed out that some multinationals driven
out of Western countries were expanding their business in developing
countries and risking health hazards. There should be taught „a range of
alternative positive behavior choices‟ for individuals and family groups.
Ramdev emphasizing holistic Indian system of health without
much chemicalizing bodies seems relevant to represent the unscrupulous
agencies in the field of health deserve a return back. The researcher is
keen to highlight the positive behavior choices leading to healthy
lifestyle.
Glenn Laverack (2004) noted an ascendanttendency in health
sector as he mentioned thus “lifestyle and behaviours became
increasingly central to health promotion in 1970s. During this period
health promoters recognized that individuals‟ behaviours and lifestyle
could directly influence their own health and the health of others”. In
very recent years the lifestyle variable on health appeared as most
important in the eyes of physicians, surgeons and the government itself
throughout the world recognizing the lifestyle factor important in difficult
diseases caught attraction of yoga, Ayurveda and other Naturopathy. Man
came out with their agenda of lifestyle even the Sadhus and religious
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preachers also made some dent striking in lifestyle in their best wishes for
the people seeking healthy life as they needed.
Keith Tone and Sylvia Tilford (1990/1994) while focusing on
health education and factors of its effectiveness observed and counted the
lifestyle as one important factor in health. “Health and illness are
considered to result from the interplay of four key influences: genetic
factors, the environment, lifestyle and medical services”.
Nobel Laureate Rajendra Pachauri, the president of Inter-
Governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) advises that the, “life-
style changes would also help to combat climate change‟ and he
suggested to shun meat, a lifestyle item, to save the environment as
necessary for human health (The Times of India 9th
September, 2008).
Journal of American Medical Association, for example, reported that
poor diet and physical inactivity caused 400,000 deaths in the United
States in 2000, accounting for 16.6% of all deaths, second only to tobacco
(18.1%). Recent estimates also suggest that 97 million adults in the
United States are overweight or obese. The trend has clearly been
upward; in the last two decades mean body weights have increased by
nearly 10%, and clinical obesity has nearly doubled in prevalence.
The personal decision making by the actor/agency usually affects
the family process and the lifestyle of total family. The yoga
practitioners/agencies in the research area are patriarchs of their families
so they were taken to focus upon. This approach about respondents is
rooted in the comments made by Vasundhara M.K. and Basavthappa
B.T. (1998) they mention, “there are also elements of personal decision
making that enter into an individual family lifestyle regardless of income.
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Today the experts in India and abroad in the field of medicine and
health have come to categorize diseases with reference to lifestyle that
means some of the diseases are caused due to wrong/unhealthy lifestyle.
Unhealthy lifestyle syndrome concept subsumes many ill choices and
selections in the course of life. And more U.N. along with W.H.O.
expressed great concern for lifestyle diseases like heart disease, obesity,
cancer, diabetes, lung disease etc. after a Summit on health with special
note of AIDS in 2001 (The Hindu: 19th September, 2011 and 2
nd May,
2012). Similar way, the Madhya Pradesh chapter of Indian Orthopedic
Association discussed at length the relationship of lifestyle and bone
ailments wherein 35% patients has shown reduced density of bones due
to changing lifestyle and food selections say burgers, pizzas especially
the villain at will (The Hindu 17th
October, 2011).
REVIEW OF LITERATURE:
The review of literature has been done on the line of categorizing
of factors in development, of social movement including health
movement and lifestyle signification.
Dube S.C. (1988) in his book Modernism and Development: The
Search for Alternative Paradigms had highlighted the discrepancies in the
approach of development in backward and traditional countries like India
and that was its lopsided development with bias to G.D.P. indicators and
the ignoring of social factors – the caste factor in backwardness, social
factors of quality of life and socio- cultural values including the health
and the hunger aspect.
Furthering the agenda of health and education as promoting factors
to economic growth via economic opportunities to be caught with the
support of health services and education deprived sections of Indian
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society, Amartya Sen and Jean Dreze (1995) emphasized their value as
these have intrinsic, instrumental personal roles in sharing the benefits of
development. They called these factors as social variables. The fact
behind Punjab and Haryana progress on economic front remained health
and education programmes especially after it‟s carving out in 1966.
Otherwise, Haryana has been a traditional Hindu society.
The government or its official movements in the field of
environment, health and education kept aside, the private actors and
agencies besides them took interest in the development of backward
regions and sections. The social movements have been one tactical
element in democratic state and the movements have been raised and
found working around socio-economic issues.
Rao M.S.A. (1979) edited a book on Social Movements in India
comprising articles covering the different regional and sectoral areas of
national life that included peasant movement, women movement, tribal
movement, naxalbari, backward classes‟ movement included Akhand
Mahoyog Sangha and Students movement even. More or less these
movements were of old types emerged in early era of independent India
ended upto 1970s. These movements were targeting totality of society or
parts of total society that aimed at seeking improvement or liberation of
sections. Rao dealt with the conceptual problems in the study of social
movements that are: - (a) problem of definition and classification (b)
problems related to emergence (c) problem related to the formulation of
identities and ideologies (d) problem of collective mobilization (e)
organization, leadership, internal dynamics routinization and (f) problems
concerning the nature of the consequences for the changes in the wider
society and culture.
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He emphasized that social movements belong mainly to the domain
of history so historical approach must be applied in the study. However,
diverse techniques to record the event and dimension of a movement can
be applied.
Shah Ghanshyam (2005) in his edited book Social Movements in
India presented kaleidoscopic view of conventional social movements
like peasant, tribal, dalit, backward caste, students, industrial workers and
women‟s movement. He referred some theories of social movements as
theory of relative deprivation, structural functional and mobilization. He
observed that most of the movements are ideologically organized while
some others are focused movements with non-institutionalized collective
action such as protest, agitation, satyagreh, gheraos denying to agitations
and protest a status of social movement in strict sense. He endorsed the
new phase of „New Social Movements‟ as the phrase is used in
„contemporary discourse‟ among social scientists and activists. He
counted under „New‟ social movements the women‟s, environmental,
identity, peace movement, attributing some social movements the result
of postmodern society. Shah endorsed the views of some social scientists
while characterizing NSMs as non-political, non-economic but cultural.
Kiger Alice M. (1995) attempted to clarify the subjective and
objective aspect of health from individualist angle while exploring Judeo-
Christian tradition of health as wholeness and contained with idea of
blessedness or salvation, Greek and Roman health ideas with concept of
well being, health and happiness were found closely related. Many
modern medicines also reflect the synthesis of such ideas including
W.H.O. one. Author‟s book The Teachings for Health incorporated the
question of planning for health, prevention of disease - primary,
secondary and tertiary. Primary prevention includes sociological factors
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such as healthy lifestyle, diet, exercises, safe sex etc. Kiger interestingly
elaborated the theoretical underpinnings measuring the points of
consultation by patients running under risks with 270 cases of Respiratory
and infectious disease while consulting on Cancer14, Obesity 13,
Diabetes 7 and Iron Deficiency 5. The figures are in the year 1987.
Harold G. Koenig et.al. (2001) focused on health behavior in U.S.
people linking the religion and health where nature of diet, sex behavior,
smoking and taking alcohol and drugs were influenced by religious
affiliations. They made hypothesis between religion and healthy practices
as he took between Jews, African- American and Buddhists and
Mormons were opting vegetarian diet, Mormons prohibited alcohol and
cigarettes. They referred some sort of specific behavior like sexual
practices; sleep pattern, driving, adventures, exercising including
spirituality based exercise program as indicators of lifestyle. Authors
endorsed the findings of Parfrey (1976) surveying cigarette smoking habit
and the belief in God. The survey suggested that frequency of church
attendance with God concept was inversely related with cigarette
smoking as a lifestyle item, in 84% cases of men and 94% cases of
women. They also highlighted the cost of Medicare was increasing
tremendously which led the self-care activities to grow in people.
Hegedus Zsuzsa (1990) in his analytical paper on Social
Movements and Social Change with reference to „New Civil Initiative‟
contented that New Social movements appeared globally in 1980s to face
new challenges e.g. peace movement for security issue, anti-apartheid for
foreign policy issue and campaign against hunger in Africa for
development issue; all are emancipatory in nature. Social movements in
1970s in Europe depicted pessimistic paradigm while in 1980s the
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movements were of positive nature. He also observed that the „newness‟
of the field of intervention was an important element in defining New
Social Movements (NSMs). New movements in eighties are basically
global or transnational on different issues attracting civil society
intervention principled on „thinking globally, acting locally‟, managing
individual and collective destiny in autonomous manner.
Nash June (2005) edited a volume Social Movements
accommodating a great diversity of „new‟ types of social movements.
The volume includes the movements of political, economic, territorial,
feminist, peace, identity, human civil society and health movements.
Nash summarized the features of New Movements while dealing with
theoretical model and practical aspects of movement appeared during the
sixties to eighties as he also referred the work of Alain Touraine 1971,
Chantle Mouffe 1985, and Alberto Melucci 1989. The New Movements
found incorporating cultural issues as central to the motivating logic of
society. These movements reject base/superstructure dichotomies of
nature/culture and female/male. He observed that New Social Movements
(NSMs) theoreticians identify new actors in new movements. The new
leaders embodied the „muted demands‟ of diverse groups as women,
ethnic and religious. In these, focus is shifted from collective base to
individual actors. However, indigeneism is the ideological ground in
which ethnic elite „set the parameters‟ for inter-ethnic discourse.
Taylor Steve (2000) while identifying key areas of social research
listed in the order deviance and sickness emphasized the significance of
social aspect of health and illness with interactionist approach to deviance
prescribed for the study. While endorsing the views of Dahlgren and
Whitehead 1991 he included general, socio-economic, cultural
conditions, living and working conditions, social and community
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influence and individual lifestyle factors covering different age, sex and
hereditary factors as given. He found that health risk and inequalities is
more a consequence of „lifestyle and behavioural choices‟. Sedentary
lifestyle, high alcohol consumption and a poor diet of refined
convenience food appeared more prevalent among the working classes,
which is under high health risks.
Giddens Anthony (2001) dedicated one full chapter on Health and
Illness to his book Sociology 4th
edition. He observed that in many
industrialized societies over the last decade showed a surge of interests in
the potential of alternative medicine and the number of alternative
medicine practitioner and the clients is growing tremendously. As Jan
Mason‟s case he referred who‟s Allopathic doctor shows helplessness in
her illness and Homeopath came forward to recover her health. Similar
experiences are increasing about Allopathy and people are rejecting this
bio-medical model, which reject body total. He identified some questions
for sociologists to consider. The questions related to the variety of
sources of information and the freedom of choices of people. The turning
of individuals into health consumers and more, another issue of interest to
sociologist relate to the changing nature of health and illness in the late
modern period where insomnia, anxiety, stress, fatigue depression and
chronic pain caused by arthritis, cancer and other diseases are all on the
rise in industrial society as concomitant. He forecasted that alternative
medicine is unlikely to overtake „official‟ health care altogether;
indications are that its role will continue to grow. He attributed lifestyle
as an individual variable to health conditions. And he provides
individuals a central focus, which is more responsible for his health
opting for a safer lifestyle rather than gross medicalization undertaken by
welfarist governments.
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Laverack Glenn (2004) focused his attention on health promotion
and the practices. He generated and referred many concepts and
approaches for the analysis of health promotion taking the latter as a
movement. Going along with empowerment perspective for community
health highlighted the role of community health promoters. Creating and
resisting changes by adopting analytical approach he supplemented his
presentation with some case studies made out in the area of heart, health
and domestic violence. To empower these vulnerable groups he suggested
a model involving the elements of participation, leadership,
organizational structure, problem assessment, resource mobilization and
program management etc.
While focusing on promotion of mental health Mittlmark M.B.
and others (2005) dealt with the concept, evidence and practice of
mental health. He emphasized that health promotion is an emerging field
of action. He attributed the lifestyle as the responsible factor of health. He
also endorsed the W.H.O. 2002 where the latter noted that minority ethnic
groups were the disadvantaged groups in health care and indicated other
factors like economic, social, physical and environmental important as
well. Health promotion discourse, they found, as diverse and related to
politics, viewing some health discourses are powerful discourses some
not. The authors prescribed the health promotion strategy aiming at
improving health related lifestyles of all citizens of Canada. Canada has
been considered at innovative path with better results. They emphasized
much on „healthy lifestyle‟.
Reddy Srinath K. (2006) of A.I.I.M.S. Delhi focused his attention
on public health policy highlighted the socio-economic determinants of
health and the policies. He attributed lifestyle disorders that matter in
infectious and other diseases in urban and rural areas as well in India.
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Unhealthy habits like tobacco use, wrong food, and irrelevant
consumption behavior were the cause of diseases heart problem
especially. He cited the e.g. of Finland which had the highest heart attack
related death till 1970 that later came to reduce the problem through the
health education program by altering the nutrient composition of
manufactured food. The author recommended the government action to
extend the mass health education programmes, regulation of industries
and promoting healthy choices.
Mark Edberg (2007) described the behavior related to obesity and
its consequences (diabetes, cardiovascular health problems). Overweight
and obesity are the two major health problems in USA. He made the US
data on obesity and cancer as basis to explain the real causes of these
diseases. Dietary deficiency and physical inactivity are two true major
factors responsible to obesity deaths. He concluded that people‟s behavior
cause rather than biological factors of cardiac and diabetic problem in
US. Healthy food, healthy attitude and beliefs are important for better
health the value of cross cultural literature on food and eating was also
source of health knowledge. Extensive marketing of unhealthy food
products (fast food included), unrestrained eating, lack of exercise,
excessive reliance on vehicles or transport, sedentary lifestyle, eating
outside home and advertisement by food industry are the subject of social
choices that requires to be altered if health is real concern for one.
Niradhar and Devkinandan (2008) in their editorial using
medical terminology pleaded for integration of spiritual health in public
health system of India while admitting body and mind the two
inseparable elements of human being. They expressed concern of the
absence of spiritual approach to health and assuming that human being is
spiritual being. They identified the religious spirituality as positive
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contributor to integrated health concept. However, they suspect that
Spiritual Health alone proves sufficient for the cure of disease but they
find it as help to feel one better. Spirituality they meant self-realization,
self-actualization, inner fulfillment etc. Maintaining a spiritual
intelligence and spiritual quotient into practice can restore spiritual
health. The duos are convinced that India has a great treasure to supply
the spiritual health resources. Yoga, they found, having 5000 year old
roots and has prophylactic, promotive and curative potentials as proved
through experimental studies.
In an another paper size article on the positive perspectives of
health Pareek Rekha Shyodan Singh (2008) emphasized the role of
lifestyle and spirituality for positive health and found that healthy
lifestyle combined with spirituality significantly contributed to maintain
such health as ingredient of good health i.e. healthy lifestyle, healthy
sleep, balanced diet prescribed under Yogic instruction were ensuring
better mental health. They covered positive, promotional, psychological
health and well being of human. They found changing of Gayatri Mantra,
enshrined in Vedas very functional as it provides internal strength. A test
was applied on 10 respondents from Devsanskriti Vishwavidhalyaya,
Haidwar. All were from humble and homogenous social background.
Lifestyle they meant as it refers to the general pattern of living and
behaving, diet, exercise, prayer, meditation and sleep etc. Healthy
lifestyle was health promoting and Unhealthy lifestyle was health
endangering that include smoking, drinking, taking unbalanced diet, lack
of exercise, irregular sleeping.
While focusing on health promotion as movement or the health
education Keith Tones and Sylvia Tilford(1994) identified ideology
element in that movement where production of meanings, signs and
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values in social life were remained in. The functions of ideology were
two – (i) justify adoption of a given model (ii) To serve as a basis for
attacking competitive models and associative practice. They analyzed
W.H.O‟s formulation of health promotion identifying its approach as
viewing holistic and positive, assuming health inequalities should be
removed first, health should be left to the medical practitioners and
people‟s health is not just an individual‟s responsibility.
Silvia, Mira and Shyam Mehta (1990) have produced a very
good commentary on practical Yoga erected by B.K.S. Iyengar, an Indian
Yog practitioner, working in America and other Western countries.
Iyengar developed his style of Yoga although it is again based on Astang
Yoga (Eight Limbs) of Patanjali, an ancient period saint, and expert on
Yoga. Authors covered value of Yoga, disciplines of Yoga, Yogacharya
Iyengar‟s life, Pranayam and Philosophy of Yoga. The work is the
exposition of Yoga knowledge and practice exponated by Iyengar. This
book is a presentation of discourse on Yoga seen in the context of
physical, mental and spiritual health of human soul. B.K.S. Iyengar is a
Yoga practitioner in his personal capacity that has his disciples in many
of world countries. The authors expounded in brief all limbs of Yoga -
Yam, Niyam, Asanas, Pranayama, Pratyahara, Dharna, Dhyam and
Samadhi with their further sophisticated components enshrined.
Singleton Mark (2010) while exploring the history of modern
yoga practice assessed yoga as international physical and cultural
movement and its impact on consciousness of Indian youth in 19th
and
20th century. But it was a holistic yoga which now has taken specific form
of posture yoga (asanas). He also cited that Hath yoga of Nath religious-
spiritual lineage, one of Hindu religion practice, giving magical instance
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to yoga. However, Vivekananda approach was asana-practice-free yoga
in his lifetime (1863-1902). He also referred transnational yoga as was
propositioned by De Michelis (2004) and Alter (2004). Singleton has
taken a big notice of B.K.S. Iyengar who since 1950s was in the West to
make them learn Patanjali based eight limbs yoga. The author added that
there have been different discourses of yoga available in Western
countries.
However, consumer behavior was the main plank of his efforts
with wider coverage of his study but Schiffman L.G. (2000) includes the
reference groups and family influences vide family lifestyles of Northern
America and Europe compared to Asia. One of the family functions was
the maintenance of family lifestyle with its commitments canvassing the
allocation of time and family purchases in togetherness. The lifestyle was
for him the decision strategy depending on voluntarisms of actors in
families that was in 1990s. He studied in 2000 that 15% of all boomers,
child taking birth after 2nd
World war, found opting for simpler lifestyle
that he called “Voluntary Simplicity” reducing willingly affluent lifestyle
to less extravagant lifestyle. He found the consumers with “vision” of
consumption somewhat distanced from real experiences. In this research
was needed to insert ideology and sensibilities of yoga practitioners‟-
consumers.
Brom, Bernard (2011) in his article size research piece was aimed
at to probe the factors of chronic disorders or the health dysfunctions. He
starts with lifestyle deformities causing ill health as a first phase of
developing unhealthy condition in the body. The phenomenon was “poor
lifestyle choices”. In the movement from health to diseases the
dysfunction was the second phase and the third phase was health
disorders that appear finally. So his integrative model pays attention to
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lifestyle changes “moving the dysfunctions back” to normal functions. So
this is the unilinear chain in the development of illness or diseases but
stipulating the reversal after lifestyle changes. The author believed that
alternative system of medicine could help a lot as complimentary to the
scientific model of medicine for health. The lifestyle factors he counted
as in negation of health thus – (i) incorrect food choices (ii) no or too
little exercise (iii) stress (iv) nutritional insufficiencies (v) toxins in the
environment (vi) drugs (vi) electromagnetic pollution and (vii) poor sleep
pattern.
Fultcher James and Scott (1999/2003) devoted a chapter on body
health and medicine focused obliquely on medicalization of society and
endorsed the view of Foucault that health concept was a matter of
changing discourse in times. They also showed health affairs in transition
from agriculture society to industrializing society and finally
industrialized society where the diseases acquired acute and aggravated
forms. They also referred asceticism influencing behavior between health
and illness.
State sponsored medicalization of society has been effect of the
day, which is operated under assumption of health and treatment of
Allopathy in Europe, America and elsewhere in civilized societies. As the
pathy serve as an indicator of civility and a product of civilized society
but it create dependence of people on state bodies creating a “Nation of
dependents” as Michael Senior with BruceViveash (1998) raised the
question of passive partnership in programmes but alternatively they
suggested that a New Right perspective was emerging since 1980s in
which individual‟s responsibility for their own health is to be theirs‟
instead of depending on state mechanism. New Right recognizes the
greater reliance on voluntary organization and the encouragement of self-
25
reliance in matters of promotion of health. As a result of this perspective
adopted by U.S.A. private health insurance cases were raised to 11%
instead of cases in 1979. In India Ramdev sparked of health social
movement has such character that is of New Right perspective.
While contributing a theoretical article titled Journal of Health and
Social Behaviour of American Sociological Association William C.
Cockerham (2005) found a convergence of agency and structure
(Giddens) on health lifestyle. The purpose of this article was to examine
the debate agency versus structure as a framework for constructing a
healthy lifestyle theory since no such theory currently existed. He
emphasized that health in late modernity has become viewed as
achievement rather than health for granted. The situation of health and
lifestyle in late modernity „originates‟ from – (i) changes in disease
pattern, (ii) modernity and (iii) social identities. In Weber‟s time he saw
the lifestyle was a product of class position but now it is based on
knowledge and other arrangements of health. Here the life choices and
life chances are important and lifestyle equates with agency.
RESEARCH TRENDS IN HEALTH AND THE GAPS APPEARED
IN THE REVIEW:
The researcher has reviewed material available through the books
and journals pertaining to the subject of health lifestyle and social health
movements. On the basis of this review some research gaps appeared.
These gaps are listed here -
Lifestyle emerged as a single largest important variable on health
and illness as reported by medical experts.
And lifestyle has not been taken up as an element of change while
socio-cultural changes are attempted in Sociology.
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Lifestyle has been referred in the work of big authors but only in
casual manner and was linked to class positions of people where
lifestyle was a matter of either dysfunction or used in neutral term.
Sociology of health literature has pushed a break through to the
study of lifestyle treating it consequential both positively and
negatively and delinked from class status.
The review suggests that the role of religio-medical movement was
attempted very scarcely and scantly.
Lifestyle change again may serve as independent variable for
family-setting changes, which is a crucial social site of structural-
functional changes. So, a situation of action of double independent
variables stage wise is being attempted here which is scarcely dealt
elsewhere.
Yoga variety of new health social movement as alternative
medicine system still could not have been attempted in any
significant manner.
Ramdev‟s health discourse has not been attempted at all by
researchers from the sociology of health as sub discipline. Since
health social movement raised by Ramdev the adequate attention to
the effect on society should be a concern of research.