Chapter FiveChapter Five

Critical Perspectives on Critical Perspectives on Theory DevelopmentTheory Development

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Initial DistinctionInitial Distinction

Though post-positivists and Though post-positivists and interpretive theorists differ in many interpretive theorists differ in many ways, both hold the general goal of ways, both hold the general goal of representingrepresenting aspects of the social aspects of the social worldworld

In contrast, critical theorists want to In contrast, critical theorists want to move beyond representation to be move beyond representation to be active agents of active agents of reformreform and and changechange

Critical Theory: An Critical Theory: An overviewoverview Key issues/terms:Key issues/terms:

– Power (social), subordinationPower (social), subordination– Empowerment, resistanceEmpowerment, resistance– LiberationLiberation

““Theories”: Multi-method, different Theories”: Multi-method, different ontologies & epistemologiesontologies & epistemologies– MarxismMarxism– FeminismFeminism– Cultural StudiesCultural Studies– PostmodernismPostmodernism

OverviewOverview

In sum, not all critical theorists In sum, not all critical theorists feel the same about:feel the same about:– How power is defined or heldHow power is defined or held– Whether pop culture is worthwhile of Whether pop culture is worthwhile of

studystudy– How “radical” research politics should How “radical” research politics should

bebe– What constitutes reality or knowledgeWhat constitutes reality or knowledge– How research should be done (and How research should be done (and

what counts as datawhat counts as data

Historical Roots:Historical Roots:The Influence of The Influence of MarxismMarxism Early work of Karl Marx influenced Early work of Karl Marx influenced

by Hegelby Hegel Saw the external world as Saw the external world as

humanly created, then reified and humanly created, then reified and seen as objectiveseen as objective

This process of objectification and This process of objectification and reification serves as a source of reification serves as a source of alienationalienation for the individual for the individual

Marxism (cont’d)Marxism (cont’d)

Georg Wilhelm Hegel: Georg Wilhelm Hegel: – Hegel’s Hegel’s dialecticdialectic

Individual Experience

Outside World

Marxism (cont’d)Marxism (cont’d)

Karl Marx: Karl Marx: – Marx’s Marx’s dialecticdialectic

Thesis

Antithesis

Synthesis

Marxism (cont’d)Marxism (cont’d)

Karl Marx: Karl Marx: – Dialectical MaterialismDialectical Materialism

Thesis

AntithesisAntithesis

Synthesis

SynthesisThesis

Karl Marx: Karl Marx: – AlienationAlienation– Objectification and reification Objectification and reification

of social world (of social world (idealismidealism))– Dialectical materialism: Dialectical materialism:

Historical progress (Historical progress (realismrealism))– Means and modes of Means and modes of

productionproduction– 3 Cs: Capital, commodification, 3 Cs: Capital, commodification,

cheap laborcheap labor– Haves (bourgeoisie) & have-Haves (bourgeoisie) & have-

nots (proletariat)nots (proletariat)– Base (substructure) & Base (substructure) &

superstructuresuperstructure

A summary of MarxA summary of Marx

The “later Marx” developed a more realist The “later Marx” developed a more realist view of the social world in a view of the social world in a materialistmaterialist view of the social worldview of the social world

The The economic substructureeconomic substructure (modes and (modes and means of production) is seen as means of production) is seen as influencing influencing superstructuresuperstructure factors such as factors such as culture and politicsculture and politics

Substructure and superstructure are Substructure and superstructure are sources of sources of alienationalienation and require and require critiquecritique

Historical Roots:Historical Roots:The Frankfurt SchoolThe Frankfurt School Founded in 1923Founded in 1923 Based on Marxist ideology and Based on Marxist ideology and

critiquecritique A journey of “revolutionary praxis” A journey of “revolutionary praxis”

that included the central concepts that included the central concepts of totality, consciousness, of totality, consciousness, alienation, and critiquealienation, and critique

Originally, scientific in focus, e.g., Originally, scientific in focus, e.g., The Authoritarian PersonalityThe Authoritarian Personality (1950) (1950)

The Ontology of The Ontology of Critical TheoryCritical Theory

Example: sociologist Anthony Giddens Example: sociologist Anthony Giddens Giddens distinguishes between Giddens distinguishes between

ontology of natural and physical world ontology of natural and physical world through concept of through concept of double hermeneuticdouble hermeneutic

The The duality of structureduality of structure:: tension tension between between agencyagency and and structurestructure in social in social lifelife

Duality of Structure Duality of Structure (we’ve been here (we’ve been here before…before…

agencyBehavior

CommunicationChoice

structureRules

Resources

Epistemology of Epistemology of Critical TheoryCritical Theory

Example: JExample: Jüürgen Habermasrgen Habermas Empirical-analyticalEmpirical-analytical and and hermeneutic-hermeneutic-

historicalhistorical cognitive interestscognitive interests– Critical theory defined by Critical theory defined by critical-emancipatorycritical-emancipatory

cognitive interestcognitive interest This cognitive interest emphasizesThis cognitive interest emphasizes

– ideologyideology– HegemonyHegemony

The goal of social science then is to…The goal of social science then is to…

IdeologyIdeology:: “The taken for “The taken for granted assumptions granted assumptions about reality that about reality that influence perceptions and influence perceptions and events” (Deetz & Kersten, events” (Deetz & Kersten, in Miller, p. 73)in Miller, p. 73)

HegemonyHegemony:: “A process in “A process in which a dominant group which a dominant group leads another group to leads another group to accept subordination as accept subordination as the the norm”—”manufactured norm”—”manufactured consent” (p. 73)consent” (p. 73)

Axiology of Critical Axiology of Critical TheoryTheory Emphasis on Emphasis on agencyagency and and powerpower in in

social lifesocial life Axiology of critical theory emphasizes Axiology of critical theory emphasizes

the the emancipatoryemancipatory capacity of theory: capacity of theory: How is this different from other How is this different from other approaches?approaches?

Habermas’ “ideal speech situation” Habermas’ “ideal speech situation” and “communication competence”: and “communication competence”: how are they “critical”?how are they “critical”?

Three ApproachesThree Approaches

Cultural StudiesCultural Studies PostcolonialismPostcolonialism Feminist studiesFeminist studies

Describe:Describe: Main point/focusMain point/focus Key wordsKey words How would they see the video?How would they see the video?

Hall’s Circuit of Culture: “The Hall’s Circuit of Culture: “The Whole Way of LifeWhole Way of Life

Representation:The image

Identity:People’s association in mind

Regulation:Boycotts, Government control

Consumption:Purchasing

Production:Sweat shops

Critical Approaches Critical Approaches Today:Today:Cultural Studies Cultural Studies Cultural studies scholars emphasize Cultural studies scholars emphasize

the complex interweaving of various the complex interweaving of various cultural factorscultural factors

A dominant minority can shape A dominant minority can shape cultural practices through economic cultural practices through economic and political controland political control

Control process is hegemonic--those Control process is hegemonic--those controlled are active participants in controlled are active participants in the processthe process

Critical Approaches Critical Approaches Today:Today:Feminist StudiesFeminist Studies Gender (and Sex) as important defining feature Gender (and Sex) as important defining feature

in social lifein social life Gender defines how we think, behave, and feel Gender defines how we think, behave, and feel

in a manner that is often invisiblein a manner that is often invisible The patriarchal nature of society can be seen in The patriarchal nature of society can be seen in

all areas of social life: especially important: all areas of social life: especially important: division of labordivision of labor

Feminist voices are not unitary--schools of Feminist voices are not unitary--schools of feminism include feminism include liberalliberal, , radicalradical, , standpointstandpoint, and , and postmodernpostmodern feminists feminists