CHAPTER EIGHT EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY: DEVELOPING LEARNERS 6TH EDITION JEANNE ELLIS ORMROD...
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Transcript of CHAPTER EIGHT EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY: DEVELOPING LEARNERS 6TH EDITION JEANNE ELLIS ORMROD...
CHAPTER EIGHTEDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY:
DEVELOPING LEARNERS6TH EDITION
JEANNE ELLIS ORMROD
Higher-Level Cognitive Processes
Cognitive Processes
The ideal classroom regularly encourages both lower-level and higher-level cognitive processes. Lower-level cognitive processes include using
basic facts and skills. Higher-level cognitive processes are those in
which people do something fairly complex with what they are learning.
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Metacognition
The knowledge and beliefs about one’s own cognitive processes and one’s resulting attempts to regulate those cognitive processes to maximize learning and memory
The greater metacognitive awareness students have, the more likely they are to use effective strategies and have high achievement.
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Metacognition
Metacognition includes planning, monitoring, and evaluating.
Reflecting on the nature of thinking and learning Knowing limits of one’s own skills Monitoring one’s own knowledge and
comprehension to monitor whether information has been successfully learned
Using effective learning strategies Planning a reasonable approach
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Developing Metacognitive Skills
Metacognitive skills can be taught separately from school. Stand-alone programs such as note-taking
workshops and time management workshops Metacognitive skills can be taught within a
subject. Teaching students how to take notes Helping them identify important aspects of
topic/concepts Teaching students how to quiz themselves
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Effective Learning Strategies
First, identify important informationSecond, retrieve relevant prior knowledgeThird, take notesFourth, organize informationFifth, elaborate on informationSixth, summarize informationSeventh, monitor comprehension
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Factors Affecting Strategy Use
The nature of the task Lower-level thinking tasks don’t require elaborate
strategies. Our knowledge base
Not having relevant prior knowledge negatively impacts the effectiveness of strategies.
Previous comprehension monitoring If we don’t know what didn’t work for us before, we
are likely to continue to use ineffective strategies. Our epistemological beliefs
Understanding the nature of knowledge and learning positively impacts the effectiveness of strategies.
Our motivation Previous instruction in effective study strategies
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Knowledge Transfer
Transfer occurs when something a student has learned at one time affects how the student learns or performs in a later situation.
Positive transfer vs. negative transfer Positive: When something we’ve learned before
helps us learn something new Negative: When something we’ve learned
before actually makes it harder for us to learn something new
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Knowledge Transfer
Specific transfer vs. general transfer
Specific: What we learned before overlaps with what we’re learning now
General: What we learned before is different in content but still helpful
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Factors Affecting Transfer
Amount of instructional time given to transferWhether the original learning was meaningfulLearning of general principles
The more general principles we know, the better
Amount and type of examples givenOpportunities for practiceSimilarity in what we’re learning to what we’ve
learned beforeTime between instruction and applicationBeing able to see the interrelatedness of
subjectsJeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Problem Solving
Problems that are well-defined are easier to solve than those that are ill-defined. Well-defined problems are characterized by:
Clearly stated goals All information needed to solve the problem Only one correct answer
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Problem Solving
Problems that are ill-defined occur more often in the real world than well-defined problems. Ill-defined problems are characterized by:
Unclear goals Missing information Several possible solutions
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Problem-Solving Strategies
There are two types of problem-solving strategies Algorithm: Solving problems by following a prescribed
sequence of steps Heuristic: A general strategy that facilitates problem
solving
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Effective Problem Solving
Cognitive factors that impact problem solving: Capacity of working memory Problem encoding Depth and integration of relevant knowledge Long-term memory retrieval Metacognitive processes
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Promoting Problem-Solving Skills
Teach important topics in depthTie class material to what students
already knowGive students practice in dealing with ill-
defined problems and show them how to better define such problems
Help students automatize basic skillsProvide opportunities for applicationMake school tasks relevant to students’
livesAsk students to apply what they know in
tests and other assessmentsJeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Creativity
What is creativity? Ability to produce work that is original but
appropriate, productive, and useful
Intelligence vs. creativity They are two separate abilities:
Tasks on intelligence tests involve convergent thinking.
Creativity involves divergent thinking.
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Strategies for Fostering Creativity
Show students that creativity is valued by reserving judgment and encouraging play
Focus on internal rather than external rewards
Promote mastery of subject areaAsk thought-provoking questionsProvide the time that creativity requiresGive students the freedom and security
they need to take risks
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Critical Thinking
Critical thinking is the process of evaluating the accuracy and worth of information and lines of reasoning.
It involves: Verbal reasoning: Understanding and evaluating
persuasive techniques found in oral and written language
Argument analysis: Discriminating between reasons that do not support a conclusion
Probabilistic reasoning: Determining the likelihood and uncertainties associated with various events
Hypothesis testing: Judging the value of data and research results in terms of the methods used to obtain them and their potential relevance to certain conclusions
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Strategies That Foster Critical Thinking
Teach elements of critical thinkingEncourage intellectual skepticismModel critical thinkingGive students opportunities to practice Ask questions that encourage critical
thinkingHave students debate controversial
issuesEmbed critical thinking skills within the
context of authentic activities
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.