CHAPTER I11

AGRICULTURAL SITUATION IN KERALA

I n th i s Chapter a n attempt h a s been made to ana lyse the

agr icu l tura l si tuation i n Kerala. A character is t ic feature of the

a g r a r i a n population i n most p a r t s of Ind ia i s t h a t l a rge numbers

of agr icu l tura l labourers belong to castes which constituted

t radi t ional ly the lowest rung i n t he caste hierarchy. The Malabar

coast is no exception. The point h a s a l ready been made by

Dharamkumar tha t i n the Madras Presidency a s well a s i n other

p a r t s of Ind ia , "even before the Brit ish ru le , there was a sizeable

group of landless labourers a t the lowest rung , both economically

and socially of t he vi l lage hierarchy. ' Within the frame work of

the t rad i t iona l caste socfety such people specifically belonged to

what may be described a s ag r i cu l tu ra l l abour caste. Z

Tradi t ional System:

In t h i s respect i t would be of interest to examine the caste

and community composition of the t rad i t iona l vi l lage society in

Kerala. The society a s it evolved i n t he 18th century included a

var ie ty of caste groups with different hered i ta ry occupations and

1. Dharamkumar - Land and Caste i n South Ind ia - Agricultural Labour i n Madras Presidency i n t he 19th Century. cambridege University Press, 1965, Op. Cit., p.193.

2. Figures furnished by Dharamkumar indicate t h a t r igh t through the 18th century i n most dis t r ic t of the Madras Presidency the proportion of agr icu l tura l l abour castes car r ied from 15 to 25 percent of the to ta l population. I n the Malabar d i s t r ic t , th i s proportion ranged from 10 to 15 percent. p.54.

was integrated into the Hindu caste system of the c ivi l

government t h a t functioned i n the region.3 The population consisted

mostly of Hindus, who by and l a r g e belonged to two categories:

(1) the s a v a r n a s - the superior castes and ( 2 ) the a v a r n a s - the

inferior or the polluting castes. A t the apex of th i s caste society 1 a.

were the Brahmins - the sacr i f icers and the men of lea rn ing among

whom the Namboothiris enjoyed the pr ide of place a s the lords and

custodian of most of the cul t ivated l and i n the region. The

numerically la rges t among the sava rna castes were the Nairs who

combined i n them the roles of warriors, overseers and agr icu l tur i s t s .

I n the Travancore region of Kerala, however the Vellala Nairs,

functioned only as agr icu l tur i s t s . I n between the Brahmins and the

Nairs, there were the Sub castes of temple servants (such a s the

Ambalavasis) who were to perform var ied functions related to the

temple.

Among the Avarna castes numerically the l a rges t were the

Ezhavas ( a l so known a s th iyyas i n the Malabar region) who in the

t rad i t iona l society besides a t tending to the i r heredi tary occupation

of tapping and coconut cult ivation also provided general labour

services i n agr icu l ture and al l ied act ivi t ies . The other a v a r n a

3. For a detailed discussion on the caste groups and the i r re la t ive functions i n the t rad i t iona l temple centered society of Kerala, See ( i) Williamlogen. The Malabar Mannual 1887, Vol.1 (Reprinted by the Supdt. Govt. Press , Madras, 1958, Chapter 11) (ii) Robin Jeffrey. The Decline of the Nayar Dominance Society and politics in Travancore, 1AL7, Vikas Publishfng House, New Delhi, 1976.

castes were those of a r t i s ans and craftsman l i ke the metal workers,

carpenters and weavers, potters and service castes l i ke the barbers

and the washer men. The ag r i cu l tu ra l labour castes occupied the

lowest position i n th i s caste hierarchy.

Out s ide the frame work of this cas te society were the

Christ ians and the Muslims whose main occupations were t r a d e and

agr icul ture i n the t rad i t iona l society. The l a rges t component among

the Chris t ians were the Syrian Chris t ians who came l ineage from the

converts to Chris t iani ty i n the ea r ly centur ies of the Christ ian e r a .

Besides there were also the Latin Chris t ians proselytised by the

European missionaries from the 18th century onwards. Islam which

a r r ived i n Kerala through the Arab merchants from very ea r ly times

a lso accounted for a sizeable proportion of the population,

especially i n the Malabar region. The re la t ive proportion of

var ious castes and community groups i n the different regions of

Kerala, a t the end of the 19th century a r e given i n Table 3.1.

The agr icu l tura l l abour castes i n Kerala were the Pulayas ,

Pa rayas , Kuravas and Paniyars . A t the end of the 19th century

these castes together accounted for about 12% of the to ta l population

i n the State. The Pulayas alone ( a l so known a s the Cheruman in

the Malabar region) formed more t h a n three fourth of the population

of these castes (See Table 3.1).

A unique fea ture of a g r a r i a n re la t ions i n the Malabar coast

i s t ha t some of these labour castes , not only the Pulayas were

drawn into a system of "Agrestic s lavery" which prevai led i n t h i s

region. This ancient system of labour re la t ions in agr icu l ture

through which the subordinate castes were kept under bondage and

their labour services extracted i n re turn for more subsistence

allownces seems to have been prevalent i n some of t he r ice growing

t r ac t s along the west coast and also i n the Madras Presidency.

Regarding th i s there is a f a i r amount of documented evidence

par t icu la r ly for Kerala i n the 19th century. 4

There i s however, no well documented his tor ical evidence

re la t ing to the origins of agrest ic s lavery i n Kerala; we can

4 . There a r e a number of travelogues and books which discuss i n detai ls the insti tution of s lavery a s i t existed in Kerala, the ear l ies t one being t h a t of the Portugese t rave l le r Durate Barbossa,

p a discription of the coasts of East Africa and Malabar. John ~ e ~ r i n t Corporation, New York, 1970; other important works a re :

i ) Buchanan. Journey from Madras, through the countries of Mysore, Canara and Malabar. London, 1807, Vol. 11.

ii) Ward and Corner. Memoir of the Survey of the Travancore and Cochin States 1816 to 1820 Travancore Sircar Press, 1891.

iii) W . Loaan (1887) OD. C i t . See a lso the more r e a l works - - . i ) D.R. Banerji Slavery i n Brit ish Ind ia D.B. Tharapore- . ,7 wala Sons 8 Co., Bombay, 193,

ii) Benedict Hjele, Slavery a n ag r i cu l tu ra l bondage i n South Ind ia i n the 19th century. The Scandinavian Economic History Review, Vol. X V , number 1 and 2, 1907.

iii) K . K . Kusuman. Slavery i n Travancore Kerala lfistorical Society, Tvm.. 1973.

We may also refer to Government Collection of off ic ia l communi- cation of the British Collectors of the Malabar District kept in the Records Office, Madras.

therefore only rely on the speculative ana lys i s attempted by some

historian^.^ These his tor ians identify the period of emergence of

s lavery to t ha t of the a r r i v a l and subsequent r i s e into prominence

of the Namboothlri. Brahmins i n the Malabar coast between the 7th

and 11th century A.D. a rgue tha t ins t i tut ional isat ion of the system

of s lavery was spearheaded by the Namboothiris.

Within the Malabar coast , there i s a demonstrable

association between Brahminical settlements, r ice cul ture and

agrest ic s lavery. I n th i s respect it i s important to take note of

the topographical peculiari t ies of the region. Rice growing t r a c t s

which form about 1/3rd of t he a r a b l e land a r e found in the r iver

beds along the low and middle l and p la ins , and those were

specifically the regions where agrest ic s lavery flourished i n the

past . The fer t i le r iver beds of the Malabar coast , where l ands

were idea l for r ice cul ture , were or iginal ly colonised by the

Namboothiri Brahmins. The or ig ina l 32 settlements of Namboothiris

i n Kerala developed around the major r ice growing t rac t s .

I t could be seen tha t it was on the fer t i le p la ins r a the r

than on the hi l ly regions of the coastal t r ac t t ha t the or iginal

settlements were found clustered on r iver banks. Thus, nine

settlements out of 32 a r e found i n the Pampa Valley, 13 on the

greater Per iyar val ley and five on the Perar .

5. i) See i n Elamkulam Kunjan P i l la i ; the r i s e of Janmi system i n Kerala, i n s tudies i n Kerala his tory, N.B.S., Kottayam, 1970.

ii) P.K. Gopalakrishnan. KeraIathinte Samskarika Charithram (Malayalam) State Inst i tute of Language, Trivandrum.1974.

Table 3.1

DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION INTO MAJOR COMMUNITIES AND CASTES I N DIFFERENT - REGION OF KERALA 1891

Travancore Cochin - Malabar Kerala

Numbers Percen- Numbers Percen- Numbers Percen- Numbers Percen- in tho- tage i n tho- tage i n tho- t age in tho- t age sands usands usands usands

( 1 ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) ( 6 ) ( 7 ) ( 8 )

Total population 2558 100.00 723 100.00 2653 100.00 5934 100.00

Hindu 1872 73.18 502 69.43 1843 69.13 4208 70.91

Muslims 159 6.22 46 6.36 770 29.02 975 16.43

Christians 527 20.60 174 24.07 48 1.81 749 12.62

Hindu Savarna Castes: - Brahmins 4 1.72 25 3.46 51 1.92 120 2.02

Namboothiris 7 0.24 5 0.69 10 0.37 22 0.37

Temple Servants 15 0.59 7 0.97 14 0.53 36 0.61

Nairs 454 18.92 102 14.11 378 14.25 964 16.25

Vellalas 45 1.76 3 0.41 7 0.26 55 0.93

Contd.. . 2

4- m

Hindu Avarna Castes:

Ezhavas 573 22.40 170 23.51 625 23.51 1368 23.05

Artisans and Craftsman 146 5.71 43 5.95 172 6.48 361 6.08

Metal worker 57 2.23 13 1.80 45 1.70 115 1.94

Carpenters

Weavers

Potters

Boilers 29 1.13 4 0.55 26 0.98 59 0.99

Service Castes

Barbers

Washerman

Astrologers

Slave Castes

Pulayas

Parayas

Paniyar

Kuravans

p~ --

Source : Census of India , 1891, Madras, Vol. 13. report Madras 1893. Table X V I - A .

The important features of the system of land relations which

emerged by the beginning of the 12th century i n the Malabar coast

were : -

1. The superior ownership r i gh t on l and cal led Janmom (or dominiurn)

r igh ts were held by the temple6 authori t ies ( ~ e v a s w a m s ) ,

Brahmin families (Brahmaswams) and also the Nair Chieftains

who were cul tural ly subordinate to the Brahmins. They

constituted the c lass of non-cultivating l and lords who lived on

their share of rent , which they extracted from the lower castes.

2. It was protected l and market, wherein caste regulat ions

prevented cer ta in sub-castes from acqui r ing or holding land .

The r igh t s to lease the l and were res t r ic ted to the better off

castes l ike the Nairs, Vellalas, and i n r a r e ins tances , the

Ezhavas and also the Syrian Chris t ians .

3 . The r igh ts to the usufructs of the land were thus leased out to

tenants , who also a t times leased out to sub-tenants under a

var ie ty of tenures l i ke Kanom, Kuzhikkanam pattom and

I panayams. There were tenur ia l arrangements separa te ly

designed for wet and d ry l and crops which were renewable every

twelve years . The rent share was customarily fixed and it varied from

6. Veluthatt Keseven. Aryan Brahmin Settlement in Ancient Kerala in Souvenir Ind ian History Congress, 1976, Calicut, p .26.

7. See T.C. Varghese. Agrarian Change and Economic Consequences, land tenure i n Kerala 1850-60, Allied Publishers, 1970, Chapters

25 to 50 of the gross produce depending on the type of contract and

the qual i ty of l and .

The ac tua l process of cult ivation was not necessari ly

car r ied out by the tenants or sub tenants who leased the land . I n

most cases it used to be done by people belonging to the

agr icu l tura l labour castes . This was par t icu la r ly t rue of the wet

land t r a c t s where t he whole r a n g e of operations in paddy

cult ivation were performed by the agres t ic s laves . The system of

agrest ic s lavery was thus integrated into the Janmi system of land

re la t ions which prevailed i n the Malabar coast.

Detailed and documented information on the practice of

s lavery i n Kerala, a r e ava i lab le from the period ,of the 15th

century onwards. By t h a t time agr icu l tura l labour castes l ike the

Kuravas and Pa rayas and also re la t ively backward castes l ike the

Ezhavas and the Christ ians were included into the agr icu l tura l

labour forces, however they were probably outside the ambit of

s lavery. The whole range of wet l and occupations were assigned to

the Pulayas or the Cherumar castes labourers retained under

s lavery , while for the cult ivation of garden l and crops practised i n

dry land t r ac t s , labourers from lower castes other than s lave

castes were employed. This pat tern of occupational specialisation

were noted by the Portugese t rave l le r Durente Barbossa when he

made h i s vis i t i n 1501 A.D. Regarding the Pulayas , the pr incipal

s lave caste of Malabar, he wrote,

"There i s another lower sector of genti les called Puler.

They a r e held a s excommunicated and accursed, they l i ve i n swampy

f ie lds and places where respectable people cannot go; they have

very small and abject hu ts andplough and sow the f ie lds with rice

and they use buffaloes and oxen". 8

Regarding the occupational pat tern of Ezhavas also called

Thiyyas, who were an important category among the backward

castes, he wrote. " ....... there a r e labourers whom they c a l l

Tiyyer. The pr incipal employment is to till the palm trees and

gather the i r f ru i t ; and c a r r y anyth ing for h i r e from one point to

another, because they a r e not i n the hab i t of t ranspor t ing them

with beasts of burden a s there a r e none and they hew stone and

gain the i r livelihood by a l l k inds of l abour . 9

Barbosa 's detailed writ ings i n the customs of people i n

Malabar br ing out c lear ly t h a t a high degree of division of labour

had come about i n t he Malabar coast by the 15th century, where i n

each sub caste or sect was assigned a specific t ask connected with

agr icul ture , indus t ry or commerce and t h a t within the agr icu l tura l

sector s lavery was a crucial ly important s i tuat ion,

Attached labour system i s a n age old inst i tut ion i n Malabar

and Trichur Districts and the Central Travancore of Kerala State.

8. Durente Barbosa. p.189.

9.' Durente Barbosa. p .189.

But i t i s g radua l ly losing i t s importance due to land

reforms, extension of protective provisions and general awakening

of backward communities from which at tached labourers a r e drawn.

Attached workers general ly belong to the Pulayan,

Cheruman, Zhuran, Sambavan, Kanakkan and Vettavan castes . They

a r e known by different names l i ke Janmom Panikkar , Sthiram

Pannikkar , Onam Vangi Pannikkar , Pan iya r etc. I n South Malabar,

at tached labourers a r e under the tic-in-allotment - and debt

bondage. liouse si tes a r e given to them free of rent , and i n

Palghat they a r e given palmyrah leaves for rooting free of charge

every yea r .

The evidence we have examined from different secondary

sources c lear ly suggest t h a t the system of field-in labour re la t ions

survived i n Kerala for several decades into present century. We

noted ea r l i e r t h a t the technology of wet l and agr icu l ture continued

to be the dominant economic act ivi ty . As long a s the technology of

r ice cult ivation was t rad i t iona l and labour intensive, and so long

a s there was no major reform affecting the economic s t a tu s of

depressed castes, the necessary and suff ic ient conditions for the

continuance of bonded labour re la t ions within the a g r a r i a n society

prevailed. We advance on argument t ha t these objective conditions

did undergo a change however from the beginning of the present

century, and i n the ensuing process the t rad i t iona l ag r i cu l tu ra l

labour re la t ions also under went a s t ruc tu ra l transformation.

Agriculture i n Pa lqha t :

Palghat was the pr incipal r ice producing region i n the

Malabar dis t r ic t of the old Madras Presidency. Among the five

t a luks which consti tute the present Pa lgha t dis t r ic t namely

Alathoor, Chittoor, Pa lgha t , Mannarghat and Ottapalam, rice

cult ivation was t radi t ional ly concentrated i n the f i r s t three. I n

t h i s region Virippu (Autumn) Mundakan (Winter) were ra ised

annual ly .

We noted ea r l i e r t h a t tenancy reforms i n Palghat came with

a considerable time l a g compared to the case of Kuttanad. Changes

i n a g r a r i a n labour re la t ions of Pa lgha t followed the tenancy

reforms in Malabar dur ing the sixties. As in the case of Kuttanad

i n Travancore t he benefits of l and reforms were disproportionately

shared among the var ious c lasses of the peasant ry . The peasants

with l a r g e holdings who i n the pre-independence period formed the

back bone of the peasant movements, emerged a s the dominant group

in the ag ra r i an sector and replaced the feudal intermediaries.

Certain developments i n Pa lgha t were, however dist inct from those

i n Kuttanad. Hence there was no extension of a rea through l and

reclamation operations. But there was a subs tan t ia l extension of

cana l i r r iga t ion fac i l i t i es through public investment i n th i s region.

There were seven medium scale i r r iga t ion projects1' almost a l l of

10. The i r r iga t ion projects a r e Malampuzha, Mangalam, Walayar, Gayathri , Chittarpuzha, Cheerakuzhy and Pothundy.

them commissioned i n the post independence period. I t i s estimated

tha t in 1970, these projects located i n the Palghat revenue

division, i r r iga ted about 48,000 hectares which formed about 70

percent of the net cropped a r e a under paddy i n the three t ab l e s of

Alathur, Chittoor and Pa lgha t . These i r r iga t ion projects rendered

possible the introduction of the new technology i n agr icu l ture which

eventually a l tered the content oi a g r a r i a n labour re la t ions i n the

Palghat region. With regard to the s t ruc ture of t rad i t iona l

a g r a r i a n labour relations i n Pa lgha t there were some features

specific to t he region. The at tached labour system a s it evolved i n

Pa lgha t was known a s the permanent labour system. Agricultural

labourers who mostly belonged to the Cherumar caste were retained

a s regular workers attached to the farm and given permanent

employment r ights . Such permanent workers, among whom women

outnumbered men, were employed for a whole range of operations

beginning with the preparat ion of the f ie ld to harvest ing, threshing

and storing of g ra in . The system of wage payments i n kind for

a l l the agr icu l tura l labourers even continued dur ing the

t rans i t iona l phase. However only the permanent workers would t ake

p a r t i n harvest ing operations for which they would ea rn a share of

the produce locally known a s Patham*; which usual ly turned out

to be the l a rges t component of the i r wage bi l l . This mode of

11. Francine R . Frankel. I nd ia green revolution Economic ga ins and poli t ical costs - Oxford University Press , 1971, p.32. Net cult ivated a r e a under paddy i n Alathur, Chittoor and Palghat t a luks is taken to be equa l to t he a r ea under Autumn paddy i n these t a luks which come to to ta l of 67,538 hectares.

labour re la t ions prevailed in Pa lgha t a t the beginning of the

It is i n t h i s context t h a t we have to analyse the impact of

new technology which was introduced into Pa lgha t i n the sixties.

The extension of i r r iga t ion fac i l i t i es which had a l r eady taken place

provided the necessary bas i s for introduction of the new technology.

Palghat dis t r ic t was also adopted under the Intensive Agricultural

Development Programme. The package of high yielding var ie ty

seeds, fer t i l izers and pesticides along with water management

faci l i t ies enabled the farmers to r eap r icher harves t s . 12

In the tab le under foot note 16 a r e given the y ? r hectare

yield r a t e s of paddy for the Virippu (Autumn) and Mundakan

(winter) crops i n the Pa lgha t region on a weighted average of t he

12. Yield r a t e s and the average farm price of the paddy i n Palghat .

Yield r a t e s Average form price Year Virippu Kg/hectare Rupees per s t anda rd

(Autumn) Mundakan price (Winter)

Source: Office of the Bureau of Economics & Stat is t ics , Govt. of Kerala, Trivandrum .

yield ra tes in Alathur, Chittoor and Pa lgha t t a luks from 1962-63 to

1972-73, what i s descernible from the figures i s an increasing t rend

in the productivity of the autumri crop. This was la rge ly the

resul t of a shif t to short durat ion high yielding var ie t ies . I n the there

case of the winter crop/was a marginal improvement a s well as

stabil ization of yields a t a re la t ively higher level. The f igures

given in the tab le a r e the averages of productivity levels of new

a s well a s t rad i t iona l var ie t ies of paddy i n both i r r i ga t ed and

unirr igated a r e a s of Pa lgha t . Francine Frankel has pointed out

tha t i n Palghat from the very beginning of the Intensive

Agricultural Development Programme there were s t r iking ga ins in

yields from higher application of modern inputs i n i r r i ga t ed a reas .

"Taking the dis t r ic t a s a whole the Indices of increase in

yield r a t e in 1964-68 over the base period 1959-60 to 1961-62 i n

blocks having cana l i r r iga t ion was a s high a s 57 percent for

vir ippu and 30 percent for Mundakan". 13

I t i s also important to note t ha t paddy prices increased

s ignif icant ly i n Pa lgha t , dur ing the s ixt ies (see table in foot note

16) . The cumulative effect of these developments was tha t the

tenants turned farmers who come to acquire considerable marketable

surp lus land consolidated and strengthened their economic position

vis-a-vis the other classes of the a g r a r i a n population i n Pa lgha t

region.

13. Francine Frankel (1971) Op. Cit., p.136.

The advent of new technology led to a systematic undoing

of time honoured practices of l abour use. The s ignif icant

development of recent times i s t h a t the new agr icu l tura l technology

has considerably eroded the employment opportunities a l r eady

ava i lab le to the labourers i n t ha t i t h a s brought along with it

extensive displacement of labour following the introduction of

t ractors and changes in the pa t te rn of l abour deployment. Pa lgha t

i s one where t ractor isat ion h a s made considerable progress since

the mid s ixt ies . Demand for t rac tors has more than trebled between

1965-66 and 1967-68, br inging the tota l in the dis t r ic t to 317. 14

From a survey conducted i n 1970-71 a s p a r t of the world

agr icu l tura l census, i t was found tha t out of a total of 1355

t ractors in Kerala over 67% were i n Pa lgha t dis t r ic t . By the

middle of 1975 the number of t rac tors in Palghat went up to 850. 16

We would also gather t ha t most of these t rac tors belong to Alathur,

Chittoor and Palghat t a luks and tha t there a r e only few of them

functioning in Ottapalam and Mannarghat t a luks . Apart from the

incipient cap i ta l i s t farmers, even the small farmers found it

14. Ib id . , p.136.

15. Govt. of Kerala, the t h i rd Decennial World Census of Agricul- tu re , 1970-71, Report for Kerala State, Vo1. IV Agricultural Census Division, Bureau of Economics and Stat is t ics , Trivandrum, 1973, p . 6 2 2 .

16. Figures obtained from the Regional Transport Office, Pa lgha t to ora l enquir ies made on 25th August, 1975.

profi table to hire t rac tors to do the i r ploughing of the i r plots. 17

The net resul t of t ractor isat ion on a l a r g e scale i n Pa lgha t region '

i s t ha t over the l a s t few years , almost the en t i re male labour force

employed i n ploughing operations h a s been displaced.

The introduction of t rac tors a l so necessitated a t igh t

rescheduling of agr icu l tura l operations. Most of the farmers who

17. The re la t ive advantages from tractor isat ion use and i t s impact on the Roam Economy of Kerala, Agricultural Divisions, State Planning Board, Kerala, August 1969. The s tudy says "on a n average t ractor takes three hours for ploughing one Acre of vir ippu l and 2.40 hours for Mundakan a s aga ins t 15 pa i r s of bullocks required for one Acre of Virippu and 18 pa i r s for one Acre of Mundakan., pp.28-29.

The table quoted below (p.28) also indicates t ha t the farmers can save a good amount by switching from bullock to t ractor ploughing.

Savings of resources per acre (Rupees0

Tradi t ional ploughing cost per acre . Tractor ploughing cost per acre . Savings per acre on account of t rac tor use.

On the bas i s of the f igures from the s tudy, we could also make some rough estimates fo the number of t rac tors required to plough the tota l a r ea under Paddy i n Alathur, Chittoor, and Palghat t a luks . If we assume tha t t rac tors could be operated a t the r a t e of 10 hours a day for 10 days in both the seasons the number of t rac tors required to plough 68,000 hectares under Virippu (Autumn) and 55,000 hectares under Mundakan (Winter) i n the three t a luks ( f igures obtained from Govt. of Kerala, crop cutt ing survey report 1971-72, Bureau of Economics and Stat is t ics) should workout to 1150. This region a s we have a l ready noticed had about 850 t rac tors by July 1975.

h i r e t r a c t o r s yet t h e p loughing opera t ions f in i shed a t a s t r e t c h ,

a n d consequently a l l o the r opera t ions which t r a d i t i o n a l l y used to b e

conducted over a longer period of time a l s o came t o be lumpered

together . Th i s implied inc reased dependence on c a s u a l l a b o u r for

f in i sh ing t h e opera t ions qu ick ly .

The new technology h a s a l s o l ed t o m a r g i n a l i n c r e a s e s i n

the quantum of l a b o u r r equ i red f o r opera t ions l i k e t r a n s p l a n t i n g ,

e spec ia l ly i n the v i r i p p u crop now be ing b rough t under more

sc ient i f ic management. However such m a r g i n a l i n c r e a s e must be

a n a l y s e d i n t h e context of t h e changes which t h e new a g r i c u l t u r a l

technology h a s necess i ta ted i n t h e p a t t e r n of deployment of l a b o u r

for r i c e cu l t iva t ion .

The in t roduct ion of h i g h y ie ld ing v a r i e t i e s b rough t i n

ano the r cons t ra in t on t h e conduct of farm opera t ions . Agr icu l tu ra l

ope ra t ions l i k e t r a n s p l a n t i n g h a v e to b e c a r r i e d out within a r i g i d

time schct-lulc nncl this rcqu i rcd tho sc rv lces of a l o r g c r numbor of

workers for shor te r per iods so a s to f in i sh t h e opera t ions f a s t e r . 18

Th i s i s qu i t e un l ike t h e c a s e of t h e t r a d i t i o n a l v a r i e t i e s , where

t h e r e is g r e a t e r m a n o e u v e r a b i l i t y i n t h e conduct of farm opera t ions ,

18. The seasona l i ty a n d r i g i d t imeliness of opera t ions involved i n the cu l t iva t ions of h igh y ie ld ing v a r i e t y seeds were t e s t i f i e d b y fa rmers we contacted i n t h e P a l g h a t r eg ion . For a discussion on the problems posed by t h e timc c o n s t r a i n t s i n t h e cu l t iva t ions of t h e new v a r i e t y seeds , See John H a r r i s . The l imi ta t ions of the h igh y ie ld ing v a r i e t y technology i n North Arcot d i s t r i c t . The view from a v i l l a g e i n D.FI. Barmer, ed . Green Revolution Macmillan, 1977. Also F r a n c i n e F r a n k e l 1971, Op. Cit . , p p . 122-124.

i n t ha t smaller dozes of labour can be spread out over a long

period of time. The system of using permanent workers t ha t

developed i n Palghat was conditioned to this mode of labour

requirements. Workers were deployed a t the r a t e of one or two

persons per acre of double cropped land and they could look a f t e r ~

the en t i re se t of ag r i cu l tu ra l operations. But t he changed

circumstances required more workers to f in i sh the operations fas te r .

There was no dear th of l abourers i n Pa lgha t to meet the

addi t ional demand. The r u r a l poor consist ing of the non-permanent

landless labourers and the small holding peasantry to whom wage

employment became a supplementary source of income colllrl readi ly

f i l l the gap . Apart from them there was also the migrant workers

from the adjoining Tamil Nadu d is t r ic t who constituted a major

source of cheap labour to t he Pa lgha t farmers. This was the

s i tuat ion which led to the recruitment of more casua l labourers to

conduct farm operations along with the permanent labourers .

The point we a r e advancing i s t h a t i n the three regions we

examined, where the t radi t ional mode of labour relations had

evolved i n response to the requirements of the technology prevalent

i n ancient times. A t rans i t ion from the t rad i t iona l technology

towards one marked by a less intensive use of labour led to the

emergence of a system of labour re la t ions i n agr icu l ture based on

the use of casua l labour . We should however be cautious in

representing these regions a s typ ica l of the whole of

19 Kerala .

Present s i tuat ion:

Agricultural labourers consti tute the l a rges t single group

among the to ta l workers of Kerala and women constitute a sizeable

proportion among agr icu l tura l labourers . According to 1981 census,

30.53% of t he population of Kerala were re turned a s workers, 26.68%

a s main workers, and 3.85% a s marginal workers, 28.19% of t he

main workers were employed a s ag r i cu l tu ra l labourers . 62.62% male

and 37.38% female i n absolute numbers out of a tota l of 6,742,697.

Main workers 1,900,904 were . ag r i cu l tu ra l labourers 1,190,318 males

and 710,586 females. 23% of to ta l men workers and 43% of to ta l

women workers were engaged i n agr icu l ture . The da t a for the

selected a rea i s a s follows:-

* Agriculture workers Palghat

Total (person) 44.95

Male 31.71

Female 71 .OO

Source : District Census Hand Book. Pa lgha t District, 1981.

19. I n Kuttanad region there a r e over 42,000 hectares of a r ea under summer rice, which form more than 40% of the tota l a r ea under summer rice i n Kerala. I n Alathur, Chittoor and Pa lgha t t a luks the to ta l a r ea put to rice cult ivation comes to about 1.25 lakh hectares, which forms near ly 15% of the gross a r ea under rice i n Kerala.

The f igures correspond to the average of th ree years 1972-73, 1973-74, and 1974-75 and have been taken from Govt. of Kerala. Statist ics for Planning, Bureau of Economics and Statist ics, Trivandrum, 1977, t ab l e 96.

Table 3.2

AGRICULTURAL WORKERS DISTRIBUTION - MALE/FEMALE I N PALGHAT

DISTRICT

Palgha t Chittoor Mannarghat Agricultural workers t a luk t a luk t a luk

Total 32.51 39.12 33.12

Male 42.73 h2 .23 55.91

Female 57.27 57.77 4 4 . 0 9 * 1

While i n Mannarghat t a luk the female percentage i s l ess t han the

male workers, . i n the other two t a luks the female percentage i s

higher .

As r ega rds l i t e racy , Kerala h a s the highest l i t e racy r a t e i n

India ( 7 0 . 4 2 % ) a s aga ins t a mere 35% for I n d i a ) . However, l i t e racy

r a t e i n Kerala var ies from dis t r ic t to d i s t r i c t . Palghat h a s the

lowest l i teracy r a t e i n Kerala (58.0%) and Alleppey has the highest

f igure ( 7 8 . 5 2 % ) . The l i t e racy r a t e i n our selected a rea was a s

Table 3.3 -- THE LITERACY RATE I N PALGHAT DISTRICT (MALE/FEMALE %)

Palgha t Chittoor Mannarghat Palghat Literacy District Taluk Taluk Taluk

Total

Male

Female

* 1 , 2 : District Census Hand Book. Pa lgha t District, 1981.

It w i l l be found tha t i n a l l the three t a luks , l i t e racy r a t e of

women i s lower t han tha t of men a t a l l levels, s t a t e and dis t r ic t .

This has put them to some handicaps when compared to men. To

some extent, t h i s was affected by the t r a d e union act ivi ty of the

members of the labour force, Kerala has been highly politicised from

the 1930's. As a resul t t r ade union act ivi ty h a s been quite

pronounced in the s ta te . The a g r a r i a n sector also was the scene

of political and t r a d e union act ivi ty since 1930. In Kerala,

Alleppey i s i n the vanguard i n the unionisation of agr icu l tura l

workers.

Kerala h a s also been i n t he fore-front i n the field of

a g r a r i a n reforms. There have been severa l out burs t s aga ins t land

lords and land-lordism i n the s t a t e even before independence.

These became more vigorous a f t e r 1947. As a matter of f ac t ,

Kerala 's l and reform movement was not only character ised by

sweeping measures, especially a low l and ceil ing (15 s tandard

acres per person and 30 s t anda rd acres per family) but also by i t s

vigorous enforcement, thanks to the v ig i l of l e f t oriented poli t ical

par t ies .

the Unionisation h a s been la rge ly responsible for most o f l g a i n s -

of agr icu l tura l workers i n Kerala. These gains include the

coverage of Minimum Wages Act, reduction i n the number of hours

of work and job security ( to a g rea t extent) besides the benefits

under the two major a g r a r i a n ac t s , the Agrarian Relation Act of

1969 and the Agricultural Workers Act of 1974. Ownership of l and

63

forms a n important asset to the old agr icu l tura l women workers in

our sample. Even though these women own only t iny plots of l a n d ,

mostly received free under the provisions of the Agrarian elations

Act, they usual ly divide it among the i r sons i n order to keep the i r

sons near them. A s a resul t these sons w i l l get only a few Cents

of l and around the i r mother's hu t . The small size f the plot

discourages the plant ing of many k inds of useful t rees to e a r n some

ex t r a income. The small size of the holding also prevents them

from growing poultry, ca t t l e etc. A t the most, a hut with a few

cents of l and can have some coconut trees. The yield from th i s

would serve a s a n ex t r a source of income to these workers and also

as a n item of mortgage for borrowing money. Most of the women i n

my sample have mortgaged the i r trees for meeting the i r immediate

needs.

Another important form of asset of the women i n our sample

was their dwelling house. Usually the i r hu t s were made of bamboo

and palm leaves . But some of our respondents were the recipient

of houses under the Government, "One Lakh Housing Scheme" which

were comparatively good bui ldings. The scheme was s tar ted i n 1972

to strengthen the socio-economic base of the r u r a l poor. It was

envisaged to build one hundred houses in each of the near ly one

thousand panchayats in the s ta te . About 40% of our respondents

were receipients of houses under th i s scheme. But 60% of our

respondents l ive i n small thatched huts with mud walls with two or

three rooms including kitchen usual ly parti t ioned with mud walls

and without a n y proper toilet faci l i ty .

I n most cases the diet of the agr icu l tura l workers i n our

sample consisted of one to two meals da i ly . Usually the previous

days le f t over r ice formed the i r b reakfas t . I n olden days workers

attached to the l and lords and maintained by them were paid i n

kind for a l l k inds of their services. But now a days they a l e

given wages i n kind only for harvest ing. However i n the case of

the older workers even dur ing times when plenty of work was

ava i lab le , they were unable to do work continuously because of

their health problems. After two or three days of work in slushy

f ie lds they would be bed-ridden with rheumatic and a r th r i t i c

problems. I n order to survive dur ing off season, they used to

collect fodder g r a s s from the f ie lds and se l l it i n the market or to

house-holds and th i s would fetch them around Rs. 5 to 6 a day.

The old people do not want to be a burden to the i r children who

a r e equal ly poor. These a r e some of the common fea tures of

agr icu l tura l women workers of our sample.

A s s ta ted ea r l i e r i n Pa lgha t d i s t r ic t , Chittoor, Mannarghat,

and Pa lgha t t a luks were selected for f ield s tudy. I n t h i s p a r t of

Kerala, due to i r r iga t ion faci l i ty , cult ivation is done three times i n

a year except i n Mannarghat. For 10 months of the year t he fields

a r e occupied. They a r e vacant only for 2 months.

The three types of cult ivation a r e vir ippu (July, September)

Mundakan (October - January) and Puncha (February - April) .

The f i r s t two types a r e timed to the onset of the monsoon. These

crops need comparatively l i t t l e water which w i l l be supplied by the

monsoon. However puncha is cul t ivated i n a knee-deep water and

hence requires an assured supply of water unl ike the e r r a t i c

monsoons. Transplant ing is the common method used for the two

monsoon crops. The first crop is ra i sed during July - September

of every yea r . The seeds a r e sown i n a ra ised plot one month

before t he ac tua l cult ivation ie . i n June. The seeds w i l l t ake 28 - 30 days to grow into required seedlings. These seedlings a r e then

t ransplanted by women (no caste b a r r i e r a s i n Trivandrum dis t r ic t )

i n well ploughed and manured f ie lds i n July. The ploughing and

manuring a r e usual ly done by men. Generally oxen and buffaloes

a r e used for ploughing. Recently t rac tors and t i l l e r s a r e also

being used, two months a f t e r t ransp lan ta t ion when the paddy e a r s

begin to appea r , the second manuring is done, aga in by male

workers. Pesticides a r e a lso used a t t h i s time. Men labourers a r e

used for t h i s work also. The paddy w i l l t ake 90 days to r ipen.

Harvesting i s done i n September. Men * and women equa l ly

par t ic ipate i n th i s . The reaped corns a r e t ied into bundles.

These bundles a r e then car r ied to the l and l o r d ' s yard by the

labourers . Their children also help i n reaping and car ry ing the

load to the threshing floor. Harvesting and threshing a r e done

s ide by s ide. For harvest ing and threshing the wages a r e pa id i n

k ind , according to the quant i ty harvested and threshed while for

the other ag r i cu l tu ra l operations wages a r e paid i n cash.

Soon af ter harvest ing, t he field is made ready for ra i s ing

the second crop ie . Mundakan. The process i s the same a s t h a t for

vir ippu and the period required is a l so 3 months. Harvesting i s i n

November - December. I n t he t h i rd , puncha crop w i l l t ake only 2

months for the paddy to ripen for harvest ing. Broadcasting of

seeds i s the u sua l method. It i s done i n the f ie lds fi l led with

knee-deep water supplied through i r r iga t ion . As a resu l t of the 3

crops pat tern labourers get work for almost t he whole year . heir

wages a r e also not high, usual ly Rs.30/= for men and Rs.20/= for

women per day (approximately) . Some time workers a r e given food,

(breakfas t - noon meal and evening t e a ) i n which case the wages

a r e reduce to 25 and 15 respectively.

I n cer ta in p a r t s of Pa lgha t d i s t r ic t , especially i n

Mannarghat t a luk , the si tuation i s different. I n several places,

the paddy fields a r e changed for producing banana and other crops.

This w i l l still reduce the employment r a t e s of women workers i n

t h a t region. This w i l l effect t he employment potential and

consequently affect t h e economic position of the ag r i cu l tu ra l

workers, especially the women workers who will be first to be

denied work when the employment s i tuat ion becomes bad . Obviously

old workers also become the worst suf fe re rs i n th i s s i tuat ion.

Their condition becomes more dis t ress ing when even the younger

ones in the family have to remain without work for several weeks

and the i r slender sav ings get eroded without any chance of

replenishment un t i l t he next harves t .