Chapter 8 Chapter 8 Conditioning and Conditioning and

LearningLearning

AP Outline Key TermsAP Outline Key Terms Difference between learned Difference between learned

and unlearned behaviorand unlearned behavior Classical ConditioningClassical Conditioning Operant conditioningOperant conditioning Skinner, PavlovSkinner, Pavlov AcquisitionAcquisition ExtinctionExtinction Spontaneous recoverySpontaneous recovery Generalization Generalization DiscriminationDiscrimination Higher-order conditioningHigher-order conditioning Effects of reinforcement and Effects of reinforcement and

punishmentpunishment Reinforcement and omission Reinforcement and omission

trainingtraining Behavior modificationBehavior modification Active and passive Active and passive

avoidanceavoidance

Cognitive ProcessesCognitive Processes Social LearningSocial Learning Practice, schedules, delay of Practice, schedules, delay of

reinforcement, motivationreinforcement, motivation Graphs used to show results Graphs used to show results

of experimentsof experiments Principles of learning and Principles of learning and

practical applicationspractical applications Emotional learningEmotional learning Taste aversionTaste aversion Coping versus helplessnessCoping versus helplessness Biofeedback Biofeedback Self control Self control Biological FactorsBiological Factors Biological constraints of Biological constraints of

learninglearning Insight Insight Latent learning Latent learning Social learningSocial learning

Basics Learning and Basics Learning and Conditioning Conditioning

Principles of learning Principles of learning reveal: reveal: To To understandunderstand

behaviorbehavior To To manage manage

behaviorbehavior

Pavlov, Skinner, Pavlov, Skinner, Watson- Little Albert, Watson- Little Albert, BanduraBandura

Most learning is Most learning is done by observing done by observing and imitating and imitating actions of othersactions of others

DefinitionsDefinitions LearningLearning is a relatively is a relatively permanentpermanent

changechange in in behaviorbehavior due to due to experienceexperience..

ReinforcementReinforcement- is important to - is important to learning any event that increases the learning any event that increases the probability that a response will occur probability that a response will occur again.again.

ResponseResponse- is any identifiable behavior - is any identifiable behavior Can be observable actionsCan be observable actions Can be internal = heartbeat increasesCan be internal = heartbeat increases

Example of LearningExample of Learning

Teaching a dog a trick-Teaching a dog a trick- Reinforce response by -Reinforce response by -giving dog foodgiving dog food

Teach a child to be neat give praise when Teach a child to be neat give praise when they clean room.they clean room.

(Response) (Response) (Reinforcement) (Reinforcement)

Primary DefinitionsPrimary Definitions Classical Classical

ConditioningConditioning ““A A Neutral StimulusNeutral Stimulus

is repeatedly paired is repeatedly paired with a stimulus that with a stimulus that reliably provokes a reliably provokes a response.”response.”

A A Neutral StimulusNeutral Stimulus only by only by associationassociation begins to elicit a begins to elicit a response.response.

Antecedents and Antecedents and ConsequencesConsequences

Relates to what happens before and Relates to what happens before and after a response.after a response.

Antecedent-Antecedent- events that precede a events that precede a responseresponse

Consequence-Consequence- effects that follow a effects that follow a responseresponse

Classical ConditioningClassical Conditioning ““Before a response”Before a response” ““A A Neutral StimulusNeutral Stimulus is repeatedly is repeatedly

paired with a stimulus that reliably paired with a stimulus that reliably provokes a response.”provokes a response.”

A A Neutral StimulusNeutral Stimulus only by only by associationassociation begins to elicit a response. begins to elicit a response.

““Antecedent events become associated Antecedent events become associated with one another”with one another”

A stimulus that does not produce a A stimulus that does not produce a responseresponse is linked with one that does. is linked with one that does.

Learning occursLearning occurs when new stimulus when new stimulus elicits a responseelicits a response

Classical Conditioning Classical Conditioning ExampleExample

Stimulus that reliably triggers a response-Stimulus that reliably triggers a response- Puff of Air to the Eye --Puff of Air to the Eye -- causes a blink causes a blink

(Natural Stimulus) (reflex- non-learned (Natural Stimulus) (reflex- non-learned response)response)

Sound of hornSound of horn is paired with puff of air is paired with puff of air Repetition ofRepetition of paired stimulus causes paired stimulus causes

association of horn with puff of air. association of horn with puff of air. Soon Soon horn will make people blinkhorn will make people blink

Create an Example of Create an Example of Classical ConditioningClassical Conditioning

Maximum two peopleMaximum two people No repeat examplesNo repeat examples UCSUCS NSNS UCRUCR CRCR

UCS _pinch _____---UCS _pinch _____---UCR___ UCR___ anxiety___anxiety___

NS __snap fing___+ _pinch NS __snap fing___+ _pinch ___UCS-----___UCS----- UCR— anxiety UCR— anxiety

Expectancy-Expectancy-

CS— comp CS— comp CR _ sal ___CR _ sal ___

Key Terms reinforcedKey Terms reinforced

(NS) (NS) Neutral StimulusNeutral Stimulus= Bell= Bell (CS) (CS) Conditioned Stimulus-Conditioned Stimulus- a stimulus a stimulus

that = learning and evokes a desired that = learning and evokes a desired response – (NS becomes CS)response – (NS becomes CS)

(US) Unconditioned Stimulus- or (US) Unconditioned Stimulus- or natural stimulus=meat natural stimulus=meat stimulus stimulus innately capable of elicitinginnately capable of eliciting a a response.response.

(UR) (UR) Unconditioned ResponseUnconditioned Response= non-= non-learned, reflex, innatelearned, reflex, innate

Principles of Classical Principles of Classical ConditioningConditioning

AcquisitionAcquisition Higher Order ConditioningHigher Order Conditioning ExpectanciesExpectancies ExtinctionExtinction Spontaneous RecoverySpontaneous Recovery GeneralizationGeneralization DiscriminationDiscrimination Stimulus DiscriminationStimulus Discrimination Conditioned Emotional ResponseConditioned Emotional Response Vicarious + Second Hand ConditioningVicarious + Second Hand Conditioning Aversive ConditioningAversive Conditioning

Principles of Classical Principles of Classical ConditioningConditioning

How conditioning occurs. How conditioning occurs. AcquisitionAcquisition-- or training – a conditioned or training – a conditioned

response must be reinforced (strengthened)response must be reinforced (strengthened) Classical conditioningClassical conditioning is reinforced when the is reinforced when the

conditioned stimulus is pairedconditioned stimulus is paired with an with an UnconditionedUnconditioned Response. Response.

* the US must follow immediately for * the US must follow immediately for conditioning to work.conditioning to work.

Higher-Order Conditioning-Higher-Order Conditioning- once a once a response is learned it can be used like an response is learned it can be used like an Unconditioned stimulusUnconditioned stimulus and be paired with and be paired with another neutral stimulus to form a new another neutral stimulus to form a new conditioned stimulus (advertisers use)conditioned stimulus (advertisers use)

Principles of Classical Principles of Classical ConditioningConditioning

How conditioning occurs.How conditioning occurs. Expectancy:Expectancy: Expectation about how Expectation about how

events are interconnectedevents are interconnected Extinction:Extinction: Weakening of a Weakening of a

conditioned response through conditioned response through removal of reinforcementremoval of reinforcement

Spontaneous Recovery:Spontaneous Recovery: Reappearance of a learned response Reappearance of a learned response following apparent extinctionfollowing apparent extinction

Conditioning PrinciplesConditioning Principles

Stimulus Generalization:Stimulus Generalization: A tendency A tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar, to respond to stimuli that are similar, but not identical, to a conditioned but not identical, to a conditioned stimulus (e.g., responding to a buzzer stimulus (e.g., responding to a buzzer or a hammer banging when the or a hammer banging when the conditioning stimulus was a bell)conditioning stimulus was a bell)

Stimulus Discrimination:Stimulus Discrimination: The ability The ability to respond differently to various stimuli to respond differently to various stimuli (e.g., Rudy will respond differently to (e.g., Rudy will respond differently to various bells (alarms, school, timer))various bells (alarms, school, timer))

Classical ConditioningClassical Conditioning

Is passive.Is passive. It happens to the learner when a It happens to the learner when a USUS

follows a follows a CSCS.. It depends on reflex responsesIt depends on reflex responses

Conditioned Emotional Conditioned Emotional ResponseResponse

Emotional responses may be Emotional responses may be linkedlinked to to new stimulinew stimuli

Pain in dentist office -Pain in dentist office -thought thought causes reactioncauses reaction

Response of Involuntary Autonomic Response of Involuntary Autonomic Nervous system Nervous system “Fight or flight “Fight or flight response”response” Linked with new stimuli and situationsLinked with new stimuli and situations

through Classical Conditioningthrough Classical Conditioning

Learned Fears are Learned Fears are Phobias Phobias

Phobias are based on Emotional Phobias are based on Emotional ConditioningConditioning

A fear that persists even when no realistic A fear that persists even when no realistic danger exists.danger exists. Animals, waters, heights, thunder, fire, bugsAnimals, waters, heights, thunder, fire, bugs

Therapy for phobias includes Therapy for phobias includes DesensitizationDesensitization-- Is used to extinguish fears- anxiety and phobiasIs used to extinguish fears- anxiety and phobias Includes gradual exposure to phobic stimuli- Includes gradual exposure to phobic stimuli-

short term and more time.short term and more time.

Classical Conditioning Classical Conditioning and and

Ivan Pavlov Ivan Pavlov Russian physiologist who studied Russian physiologist who studied digestiondigestion

Used dogs to study salivation when Used dogs to study salivation when dogs were presented with meat dogs were presented with meat powderpowder

Also known as Pavlovian or Also known as Pavlovian or Respondent ConditioningRespondent Conditioning

Reflex: Automatic, non-learned Reflex: Automatic, non-learned responseresponse

In In operant conditioning,operant conditioning, a response that is followed by a reinforcing consequence a response that is followed by a reinforcing consequence becomes more likely to occur on future occasions. In the example shown, a dog becomes more likely to occur on future occasions. In the example shown, a dog learns to sit up when it hears a whistlelearns to sit up when it hears a whistle

Fig. 8.2 Fig. 8.2 An apparatus for Pavlovian conditioning. A tube carries saliva An apparatus for Pavlovian conditioning. A tube carries saliva from the dog’s mouth to a lever that activates a recording device (far from the dog’s mouth to a lever that activates a recording device (far left). During conditioning, various stimuli can be paired with a dish of left). During conditioning, various stimuli can be paired with a dish of food placed in front of the dog. The device pictured here is more food placed in front of the dog. The device pictured here is more elaborate than the one Pavlov used in his early experiments.elaborate than the one Pavlov used in his early experiments.

Operant ConditioningOperant Conditioning

ResponsesResponses followed by reinforcementfollowed by reinforcement cause cause frequency of responsefrequency of response to to increaseincrease..

Learning is based on Learning is based on consequencesconsequences of of respondingresponding

Responses are followed by reinforcesResponses are followed by reinforces Example:Example: Wear a hat--Wear a hat--get compliments get compliments Wear Wear

hat hat _(Antecedent)_(Reinforcement)____more _(Antecedent)_(Reinforcement)____more get more complements (Consequence)get more complements (Consequence)

Vicarious + Second Hand Vicarious + Second Hand ConditioningConditioning

Occurs when we learn to respond Occurs when we learn to respond emotionally to a stimulus by emotionally to a stimulus by observing another person’s observing another person’s reactions.reactions.

We can be conditioned vicariouslyWe can be conditioned vicariously

Operant ConditioningOperant Conditioning Applies to all Applies to all living creaturesliving creatures Can be used to alter behaviorCan be used to alter behavior

We associate responses with their We associate responses with their consequencesconsequences

Acts that are reinforced tend to be repeated.Acts that are reinforced tend to be repeated.

Law of Effect:Law of Effect: The The probability of a probability of a response is altered by the effect it has)response is altered by the effect it has) Learning is strengthened each time a response is Learning is strengthened each time a response is

followed by a satisfying state of affairs.followed by a satisfying state of affairs.

Edward Edward ThorndikThorndike (Law of e (Law of Effect)Effect)B.F. B.F. Skinner Skinner

Operant Conditioning Operant Conditioning CharacteristicsCharacteristics

Learner Actively “Operates on” the Learner Actively “Operates on” the environmentenvironment

Refers mainly to Refers mainly to learning voluntary learning voluntary responsesresponses

Example:Example: T.V. Remote T.V. Remote Pushing the Pushing the button is reinforced by gaining the button is reinforced by gaining the resultresult

Fig. 8.9 Fig. 8.9 The Skinner box.The Skinner box. This simple device, invented by B. F. Skinner, This simple device, invented by B. F. Skinner, allows careful study of operant conditioning. When the rat presses the allows careful study of operant conditioning. When the rat presses the bar, a pellet of food or a drop of water is automatically released. (A bar, a pellet of food or a drop of water is automatically released. (A photograph of a Skinner box appears in Chapter 1.)photograph of a Skinner box appears in Chapter 1.)

Conditioning Chamber

Animals take action to satisfy needs.

Behavior causes consequences reinforces behavior

Positive ReinforcementPositive Reinforcement

Idea that reward affects learningIdea that reward affects learning

Operant ReinforcersOperant Reinforcers = any event = any event that follows a response and that follows a response and increases its probability of occurring increases its probability of occurring again.again.

Operant LearningOperant Learning

Based on information and Based on information and expectancyexpectancy

A A certain response (behavior)-certain response (behavior)- will will have a certain have a certain effecteffect at certain times at certain times

Operant Conditioning Operant Conditioning CharacteristicsCharacteristics

Contingent Reinforcement Contingent Reinforcement Reinforcement Reinforcement works works best best when given when given after -after - desired response has occurred. desired response has occurred.

Timing of ReinforcementTiming of Reinforcement is also is also important- Operant Reinforcement is important- Operant Reinforcement is most effective when it rapidly follows a most effective when it rapidly follows a correct response.correct response.

Delay in reinforcement = less responseDelay in reinforcement = less response

ShapingShaping

The gradual molding of responses to The gradual molding of responses to a desired patterna desired pattern

(animals taught to perform)(animals taught to perform) Beginning Beginning incremental-incremental-

reinforcement till desired response reinforcement till desired response occursoccurs

Step by step approximations- are Step by step approximations- are refinedrefined

Operant ExtinctionOperant Extinction

Learned responses that are not Learned responses that are not reinforced gradually fade awayreinforced gradually fade away

Takes time Takes time Spontaneous recovery still worksSpontaneous recovery still works

Superstitious BehaviorSuperstitious Behavior

Unnecessary responses associated Unnecessary responses associated with successful Reinforcerswith successful Reinforcers

Appear to produce reinforcementAppear to produce reinforcement Skinner- pigeon studySkinner- pigeon study

The difference between Positive The difference between Positive Punishment and Negative Punishment and Negative

Reinforcement:Reinforcement: Reinforcement is to Reinforcement is to INCREASE frequencyINCREASE frequency of behavior of behavior.  .  Punishment DECREASES behaviorPunishment DECREASES behavior..  So it's just what you do to increase or decrease   So it's just what you do to increase or decrease

behavior.  behavior. 

Positive means ADD (like in math) and negative means SUBTRACT.  So Positive Punishment is ADDING Positive means ADD (like in math) and negative means SUBTRACT.  So Positive Punishment is ADDING something to DECREASE behavior.  Negative Reinforcement is SUBTRACTING something to INCREASE something to DECREASE behavior.  Negative Reinforcement is SUBTRACTING something to INCREASE behavior. behavior. 

Ex:   Ex:   Positive Punishment- ADDING detentionPositive Punishment- ADDING detention to to DECREASE tardinessDECREASE tardiness if someone is late to if someone is late to class class (ADD (ADD aversiveaversive stimulus)stimulus)

Negative Reinforcement-Negative Reinforcement- SUBTRACTING chores in orderSUBTRACTING chores in order to to INCREASE frequency of good grades when a son or daughter INCREASE frequency of good grades when a son or daughter

brings home good report card brings home good report card (SUBTRACT aversive stimulus)(SUBTRACT aversive stimulus)  

People like to get Negative Reinforcement, whereas People like to get Negative Reinforcement, whereas people usually do not like to get Positive Punishment.people usually do not like to get Positive Punishment.

   You just have to look at whether you want the behavior to You just have to look at whether you want the behavior to

increase or decrease in frequency, and whether something is increase or decrease in frequency, and whether something is being added or subtracted in order to get to that point.being added or subtracted in order to get to that point.

Negative ReinforcementNegative Reinforcement

Making a response Making a response removes an unpleasant removes an unpleasant eventevent

Increases responding by ending discomfortIncreases responding by ending discomfort

Headache-Headache-discomfort---take aspirin discomfort---take aspirin headache will be negatively reinforcedheadache will be negatively reinforced

Rat given electric shock-Rat given electric shock-presses bar to presses bar to remove shock <removes unpleasant event>remove shock <removes unpleasant event>

PunishmentPunishment is not negative reinforcement is not negative reinforcement

Both Positive and Negative Both Positive and Negative reinforcementreinforcement

Lead to increases in response Lead to increases in response (behaviors) frequencies(behaviors) frequencies

Negative – action to end discomfortNegative – action to end discomfort Positive- action to get reward Positive- action to get reward

PunishmentPunishment Decreases respondingDecreases responding Refers to following a response with an Refers to following a response with an

aversive <unpleasant> consequenceaversive <unpleasant> consequence

Punishment decreases Punishment decreases the response or the the response or the likelihood that the response will occur likelihood that the response will occur again.again.

Punishment occurs when a reinforcerPunishment occurs when a reinforcer or or positive state of affairs is removed positive state of affairs is removed example- example- privilegesprivileges

Operant ReinforcersOperant Reinforcers

Primary ReinforcersPrimary Reinforcers Secondary ReinforcersSecondary Reinforcers FeedbackFeedback

Primary ReinforcersPrimary Reinforcers

Natural, Non-learned, Rooted in Natural, Non-learned, Rooted in BiologyBiology

Produce comfort, End discomfortProduce comfort, End discomfort Fill an immediate physical need- Fill an immediate physical need-

food, water, sexfood, water, sex

Actions reflect primary Reinforcers Actions reflect primary Reinforcers

Intra-Cranial StimulationIntra-Cranial Stimulation

Direct activation of pleasure centers Direct activation of pleasure centers Example- Rat ExperimentsExample- Rat Experiments

Primary ReinforcerPrimary Reinforcer

Secondary ReinforcersSecondary Reinforcers

LearnedLearned $, praise, attention, approval$, praise, attention, approval Success, affection, Success, affection, gradesgrades Can be associated with a primary reinforcer Can be associated with a primary reinforcer

(food + secondary –praise)(food + secondary –praise)

Token reinforcer-Token reinforcer- a tangible , secondary a tangible , secondary reinforcer can be exchanged for primary reinforcer can be exchanged for primary reinforcerreinforcer

Don’t lose reinforcing value-easilyDon’t lose reinforcing value-easily

Social ReinforcersSocial Reinforcers

Learned desires for attention and Learned desires for attention and approvalapproval

Attention + approval can change the Attention + approval can change the behaviorbehavior

FeedbackFeedback

DefinitionDefinition: Knowing level of degree of : Knowing level of degree of achieving desired resultsachieving desired results

Learning needs responsive environment + Learning needs responsive environment + informationinformation

Knowledge of resultsKnowledge of results information about the information about the effect a response hadeffect a response had

Provides rapid learningProvides rapid learning Improves learningImproves learning and performance and performance Should be Should be Frequent, Immediate, and detailedFrequent, Immediate, and detailed

Operant ConditioningOperant Conditioning

Continuous reinforcement- Continuous reinforcement- reinforcement follows correct reinforcement follows correct responsesresponses

Partial Reinforcement Effect-Partial Reinforcement Effect- not every not every response is reinforced (gambling)response is reinforced (gambling) Behavior is highly resistant to extinctionBehavior is highly resistant to extinction Makes habit strongerMakes habit stronger Due to Due to expectationsexpectations for reinforcement for reinforcement

Schedules of ReinforcementSchedules of Reinforcement