Chapter 6

Learning

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Classical conditioning

Learning– relatively durable change in an organism’s behavior due

to experience

Ivan Pavlov Terminology

– Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)– Conditioned Stimulus (CS)– Unconditioned Response (UCR)– Conditioned Response (CR)

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Classical Conditioning: More Terminology

Trial = pairing of UCS and CS Acquisition = initial stage in learning Stimulus contiguity = occurring together in time and

space 3 types of Classical Conditioning

– Simultaneous conditioning: CS and UCS begin and end together

– Short-delayed conditioning: CS begins just before the UCS, end together

– Trace conditioning: CS begins and ends before UCS is presented

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Processes in Classical Conditioning

Extinction Spontaneous Recovery Stimulus Generalization Discrimination Higher-order conditioning

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Behaviorism

John B. Watson

viewed psychology as objective science generally agreed-upon

consensus today

recommended study of behavior without reference to unobservable mental processes not universally accepted by all

schools of thought today

Table of ContentsWatson & Raynor with Little Albert

Watson took a a baby named Albert and conditioned him to be afraid of white furry objects using Pavlov’s techniques.

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Conditioned fear experiments such as Albert’s experience would never occur

today because of the existing ethical

standards.

Conditional Training: Little Albert

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Operant Conditioning or Instrumental Learning

Edward L. Thorndike (1913) – the law of effect B.F. Skinner (1953) – principle of reinforcement

– Operant chamber (Skinner Box)– Emission of response – Reinforcement contingencies– Cumulative recorder

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Basic Processes in Operant Conditioning

Acquisition Shaping Extinction Spontaneous Recovery Stimulus Control

– Generalization– Discrimination

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Reinforcement: Consequences that Strengthen Responses

Delayed Reinforcement– Longer delay, slower conditioning

Primary Reinforcers– Satisfy biological needs

Secondary Reinforcers– Conditioned reinforcement

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Schedules of Reinforcement

Continuous reinforcement – faster extinction Intermittent (partial) reinforcement – greater

resistance to extinction Ratio schedules (number)

– Fixed (set)– Variable (random)

Interval schedules (time)– Fixed – Variable

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Consequences: Reinforcement and Punishment

Increasing a response:– Positive (+) reinforcement = response followed by rewarding

stimulus (Give them something they want, ie a candy bar)– Negative (-) reinforcement = response followed by removal

of an aversive stimulus (Take away something that is annoying/bothering/hurting them, ie nagging, seat belt tone)

• Escape learning (open umbrella after you’re wet)• Avoidance learning (open umbrella before it rains)

Decreasing a response:– Positive Punishment = presentation of an aversive stimulus

(give them something they do not want, ie detention, fine– Negative Punishment = removal of a rewarding stimulus

(take away something they want, ie cell phone, car

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Punishment

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Problems with Punishment - (Spanking)

Does not teach or promote alternative, acceptable behavior

May produce undesirable results such as hostility, passivity, fear

Likely to be temporary May model aggression (Bandura Bobo doll

experiment)

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Biological Predispositions

John Garcia

Conditioned taste aversions Not all neutral stimuli can become conditioned stimuli. Internal stimuli—associate better with taste External stimuli—associate better with pain Biological preparedness

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Changes in Our Understanding of Conditioning

Biological Constraints on Conditioning– Instinctive Drift– Conditioned Taste Aversion– Preparedness and Phobias

Cognitive Influences on Conditioning– Signal relations – predicive value based on experience– Response-outcome relations – causal relationship

• Cognitive processes play a large role in conditioning

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Signal Relations

Robert Rescorla conducted research around the cognitive element in conditioning

Environmental stimuli serve as signals

Some stimuli are better and more dependable signals than others

Rescorla manipulated signal relations in classical conditioning

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Signal Relations (ii)

CS-UCS relations influence whether a CS is a good signal

A ‘good’ signal is one that follows accurate prediction of the UCS

For one group of rats the CS (tone) and UCS (shock) are paired in 100% of the experimental trials

Example:

For another group the CS and UCS are paired in only 50% of the trials

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The predictive value of CS

The predictive value of a CS is an influential factor governing classical conditioning

The two groups of rats have had an equal number of CS-UCS pairings

CS is a better signal or predictor of shock for the 100% CS-UCS group than for the 50% CS-UCS group

This difference must be due to the greater predictive power of the CS for the 100% group

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Response-Outcome Relations and Reinforcement

Response-outcome relations and reinforcement highlight the role of cognitive processes in conditioning

Reinforcement is not automatic when favourable consequences follow a response

Individuals actively reason out the relation between responses and the outcomes that follow

The response is more likely to be strengthened if the person thinks that the response caused the outcome

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Response-Outcome Relations and Reinforcement (ii)

Animals also engage in causal reasoning

They recognise causal relations between responses and outcomes

Stimuli are viewed as signals that help animals minimize their aversive experiences and maximize their pleasant experiences

Identifying the contingencies among environmental events

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Observational Learning: Basic Processes

Albert Bandura (1977, 1986) – Observational learning – Vicarious conditioning

4 key processes– attention– retention– reproduction– motivation

acquisition vs. performance Latent learning Cognitive maps Learned helplessness

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Observational Learning

Mirror Neurons frontal lobe neurons that fire when

performing certain actions or when observing another doing so

may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy

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1) paid 10 dollars for every 20 puzzles solved2) studying for a class that has surprise quizzes

3) ______________________ slot machines are based on this schedule4) ________________________ trolling for fish in a lake in the summer

5) speed traps on highways6) _______________________ selling a product door to door

7) getting the clothes out of the dryer once it buzzes

8) going up a staircase to reach a landing with a nice view9) ______________________ doing 20 pushups to help stay fit

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10) _____ playing Bingo11) ______getting a paycheck at the end of 2 weeks12) _______drug testing13) ________a strike in bowling

14) calling your mechanic to see if your car is fixed yet

15) — frequent flyer program where one gets a free flight after a specific number of miles flown

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16) _______________________ child screams and cries in store to get what he wants—every so often it works17) ______________________ child who likes to hear theme music from Jeopardy every night at 7 pm

18) trying to find a parking spot in Metropolis with a meter that works19) _______________________ wife is watching boxing match with husband- she receives a kiss at the end of every 3-minute round20) ______________________ waiting for a sunny day to go to the beach

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