Kennedy and the Cold War (2-9)The New Frontier (Kennedy)

(10-15)The Great Society (Lyndon B. Johnson)

(16-22)

Chapter 20:New Frontier and the

Great Society

Mood of restlessness upon Eisenhower’s term ending Economy was in a recession, USSR launched Sputnik in 1957 and

developed long-range missiles increased American fears as our military was falling behind, U-2 incident and alignment of Cuba with the Soviet Union (were we losing the Cold War?)

Democratic nominee = Massachusetts senator John Fitzgerald Kennedy vs. Republican nominee = Vice President Richard Nixon Two things put Kennedy over the top: television and the civil

rights issue Positives: well-organized campaign, wealthy family backing, handsome,

and charismatic Negatives: young (43) and inexperienced, Roman Catholic (pope as an

influence in American policies, and closer ties between church and state)

First televised debate between presidential candidates (started television age in American politics) Nixon agreed in hopes of exposing Kennedy’s inexperience Kennedy was well coached by television producers and looked and spoke

better than Nixon

Election of 1960

Reverend Martin Luther King, Jr. and 33 other African American demonstrators were arrested for sitting at a segregated lunch counter in Atlanta, Georgia (MLK was sentenced to hard labor) Eisenhower and Nixon didn’t intervene Kennedy called King’s wife and his brother, campaign manager,

Robert Kennedy persuaded the judge to release the civil rights leader on bail, pending appeal.

Captured immediate attention of the African American community, which helped Kennedy carry key states in the Midwest and South

Set aside “the religious question” in favor of the civil rights question JFK becomes the 35th President

Challenge to the American people: world is in “its hour of maximum danger”, as Cold War tensions ran high – rather than shrinking danger, the U.S. should confront the “iron tyranny” of communism.

Put to the test when several Cold War crises tried his leadership…

Civil Rights – Election of 1960

Kennedy won by fewer than 119,000 votes and set the tone for a new White House era: grace, elegance, and wit.The first family fascinated the public – his

intelligence, charm, and wit and Jacqueline’s eye for fashion and culture.Regular American family, made it easier for

voters to think the president is like them and understand their needs and interests (newspapers and magazines pushed this image).

Surrounded by a team of advisers that were considered “the best and the brightest” (35-year old brother, Robert, was appointed attorney general).

Camelot Years

Focused on the Cold War (Eisenhower administration had not done enough – Soviets gained power in less-developed third world countries and communism developed in Cuba.Redefine the nation’s nuclear strategy – flexible

response: increased defense spending to boost conventional military forces (nonnuclear forces such as troops, ships, and artillery) and tripled the U.S.’s nuclear capabilities.

Enabled the U.S. to fight limited wars around the world while maintaining a balance of nuclear power with the Soviet Union.

Military Policy

Eisenhower had cut off diplomatic relations with Cuba because of a revolutionary leader, Fidel Castro, who openly declared himself a communist and welcomed aid from the Soviet Union. Gained power with the promise of democracy; upon winning control in

1959, he promised to eliminate poverty, inequality, and dictatorship.

BUT seized three American and British oil refineries, broke up commercial farms into communes that would be worked by formerly landless peasants.

American sugar companies appealed to the U.S. Congress for help, and Congress erected trade barriers against Cuban sugar.

Relied on Soviet aid and politically repressed those who did not agree with him

Some Cubans followed suit while others saw Castro as a tyrant who had replaced one dictatorship with another.

10% of Cuba’s population went into exile (counterrevolutionary movement in Miami). 1960 – Eisenhower gave the CIA permission to secretly train Cuban exiles for an

invasion of Cuba – over Castro (Kennedy learned of this shortly after his election and with doubts, approved it).

Crisis in Cuba (90 miles from FL)

CIA tried to make the invasion look like an autonomous Cuban operation with no U.S. support – story unraveled (U.S. faced military and foreign relations disaster from which it took years to recover). Created an opening for Khrushchev to send missiles to Castro to defend Cuba and sent mixed signals to Khrushchev about U.S. resolve.

Invading exiles were killed or imprisoned – Kennedy negotiated with Castro for the release of surviving commandos and paid a ransom of $53 million in food and medical supplies.

Kennedy warned that he would resist further Communist expansion in the Western Hemisphere, Castro defiantly welcomed further Soviet aid. 1962 – flow to Cuba of Soviet weapons increased greatly (including nuclear missiles) –

America would not tolerate offensive nuclear weapons in Cuba. Photos taken by American planes revealed Soviet missile bases in Cuba – some containing missiles

ready to launch. Kennedy informed the nation and his plans to remove them – any missile attack from Cuba would trigger an all-out attack on the Soviet Union.

Nuclear Deterrence and mutually assured destruction – since each side could annihilate the other, this assured destruction would keep each side from launching a first strike.

U.S. military prepared to quarantine Cuba and troops in Florida waited. Soviet ships stopped suddenly to avoid a confrontation at sea (Khrushchev offered to remove the missiles in return for an American pledge not to invade Cuba and the U.S. also secretly agreed to remove missiles from Turkey)

Both leaders received criticism – Kennedy practicing Brinksmanship when private talks may have resolved the crisis; passed an ideal chance to invade Cuba and oust Castro.

Cubans blamed the Democrats for “losing Cuba” (a charge Kennedy had earlier leveled at the Republicans) and switched their allegiance. Castro closed doors to the exiles.

U.S. in Cuba

Confrontation over the construction of the Berlin Wall (a concrete wall topped with barbed wire that severed the city in two).Since the Berlin Airlift (11 years prior), many East Germans

fled to West Berlin because it was free from Communist rule, weakened that country’s economy.

Khrushchev threatened to sign a treaty with East Germany that would enable that country to close all the access roads to West Berlin – Kennedy refused to give up U.S. access (“great testing of Western courage and will”)

Kennedy’s determination and America’s superior nuclear striking power prevented Khrushchev from closing the air and land routes between West Berlin and West Germany. Instead they constructed the Berlin Wall, separating East Germany from West Germany.

Crisis over Berlin

Cold War peace from nuclear disasterKennedy announced that the two

nations established a hotline between the White House and Kremlin, enabling leaders of the two countries to communicate at once should another crisis arise.

U.S. and the Soviet Union agreed to a Limited Test Ban Treaty barring nuclear testing in the atmosphere.

Easing of Tensions

Americans to be “new pioneers” and explore “uncharted areas of science and space…unconquered pockets of ignorance and prejudice, unanswered questions of poverty and surplus.”Difficulty making it a reality because he could not gather

enough votes from Congress – conservative coalition of Republicans and Southern Democrats who blocked Truman’s Fair Deal.Medical care for the aged, rebuild blighted urban areas, aid

educationLacked a popular mandate (a clear indication that voters

approved of his plans), so he played it safe politically.Persuaded Congress to boost the economy, build the national

defense, provide international aid, and fund a massive space program.

New Frontier

By 1960 America was in a recession – moderate slowdown of the economy marked by increased unemployment and reduced personal consumption (people worried about job security). Decline in consumer spending, which sets in motion a chain of

events that slows business further. Reductions in consumer spending lead to increased inventories, employee layoffs, and further decline in consumer confidence.

Kennedy criticized the Eisenhower administration for failing to stimulate economic growth (lagging behind other Western democracies and the Soviet Union).

Advisors pushed for the use of deficit spending – stimulating economic growth depended on increased government spending and lower taxes

20% budget increase for the Department of Defense for new nuclear missiles, nuclear submarines, and an expansion of the armed services.

Increased minimum wage to $1.25/hour, extended unemployment insurance, and provided assistance to cities with high unemployment.

1960 Economy

Peace Corps – program of volunteer assistance to the developing nations of Asia, Africa, and Latin America (“enough know-how and knowledgeable people to help those nations help themselves”). Under the direction of his brother-in-law, R. Sargent Shriver. “Kennedy’s Kiddie Korps” – many volunteers were just out of

college and could Americans understand other cultures? Agricultural advisors, teachers, or health aides or to do whatever

work the host country needed. Alliance for Progress – offered economic and technical

assistance to Latin American countries 1961-69 the U.S. invested almost $12 billion in Latin America, in

part to deter these countries from picking up Fidel Castro’s revolutionary ideas.

Michael Harrington’s The Other America brought to national attention the problem of poverty in America – the number of poor shocked many Americans.

New Frontier Programs

Soviet cosmonaut Yuri A. Gagarin became the first human in space and Kennedy saw this as a challenge, so he decided America would be the first to send a man to the moon. Duplicated the Soviet’s feat, communications satellite (Telstar) relayed

live television pictures across the Atlantic Ocean from Maine to Europe, NASA began constructing launch facilities and a mission control center.

July 20, 1969, U.S. astronaut Neil Armstrong took his first steps on the moon.

Universities expanded their science programs – huge federal funding for research and development gave rise to new industries and new technologies, many used in business, industry, and consumer goods.

Space and defense-related industries sprang up in the Southern and Western states (where program centers are located).

Technology developed for the space program greatly influenced the scientific community, the civilian economy, and American life – computer chips, medical, telecommunications, and aviation advances’ freeze-dried foods and instant beverages.

Kennedy/Space Race

Fight against segregation took hold as demonstrators raised their voices in some extremely controversial civil rights battles in the 1960s. Kennedy did not push aggressively for legislation on the

issues of poverty and civil rights, although he effected many changes by executive action… but he felt now it was time for action.

In 1963 he began to focus on more issues at home – “national assault on the causes of poverty”, ordered Robert Kennedy’s Justice Department to investigate racial injustices in the South, and presented Congress with a sweeping civil rights bill and a proposal to cut taxes by over $10 billion.

Kennedy’s civil rights bill was block in Congress by conservative southern Democrats.

1963 March on Washington by civil rights organizations to urge the passage of the measure – 250,000 Americans of all races showed their support, including Rev. Martin Luther King Jr., who gave his memorable “I Have A Dream” speech.

Civil Rights Push

Tragedy in Dallas – losing popularity because of his advocacy of civil rights, yet most still supported him. The President and Mrs. Kennedy went to Texas to mend political fences with members of

the state’s Democratic Party. Car approached a building known as the Texas School Book Depository, when rifle shots

rang out, and Kennedy was shot in the head. People reacted in disbelief – who had killed the president and why? What

would happen next? Vice-President Lyndon B. Johnson took the oath of office aboard the

presidential airplane. Dallas police charge Lee Harvey Oswald with murder- palm print on the rifle.

24-year old ex-marine had a suspicious past – dishonorable discharge, briefly lived in the Soviet Union, and supported Castro.

When he was being transferred between jails, a nightclub owner, Jack Ruby, broke through and shot Oswald.

All work stopped for Kennedy’s funeral – the assassination and funeral became a historic event.

Was Oswald part of a conspiracy (illegal political action)? The Warren Commission investigated and concluded that Oswald had shot the president while acting on his own.

Reinvestigation concluded that Oswald was part of a conspiracy – two persons may have fired at Kennedy, plots from anti-Castro Cubans, Communist-sponsored attack, CIA conspiracy.

Proved our system of government is remarkably sturdy – smooth transition to the presidency of Lyndon Johnson.

Assassination of Kennedy

Fourth-generation Texan who grew up without great wealth, but never missed a meal. Teaching degree from Southwest Texas State Teachers College in 1930 – financing his

own education 1934 he became the director of the National Youth Administration (New Deal

agency) – pushed hard for the Elementary and Secondary Education Act as president (signing it into law in 1965)

Entered politics in 1937, winning a special election to fill a vacant seat in the U.S. House of Representatives. “New Dealer”; supported small ranchers and struggling farmers FDR helped him secure key committee assignments in Congress and

steer much-needed electrification and water projects to Johnson’s district – Johnson imitated his leadership style.

1948 he won the Democratic primary election for the Senate Master of party politics and behind the scenes maneuvering, becoming Senate

majority leader in 1955 – ability to persuade senators to support his bills (LBJ treatment) Passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1957, a voting rights measure that was the

first civil rights legislation since Reconstruction. Johnson’s congressional connections and his Southern Protestant background

compensated for Kennedy’s own drawbacks as a candidate – making Johnson Kennedy’s running mate (helping him win key states in the South, especially Texas).

LBJ’s Journey trough Politics

Kennedy had inspired Americans to begin to solve national and world problems. Johnson urged Congress to pass the civil rights and tax-cut bills that Kennedy had sent to Capitol Hill. 1964 Congress passed a tax reduction of over $10 billion into law, which

spurred economic growth as people spent more leading to profitable businesses, increasing tax revenues and lowering the federal budget deficit.

Civil Rights Act of 1964 – prohibiting discrimination based on race, religion, national origin, and sex and granting the federal government new powers to enforce its provisions.

Alleviate poverty, declaring “unconditional war on poverty in America” and proposed legislation designed to help Americans “on the outskirts of hope.”

Economic Opportunity Act (EOA) in 1964 - $1 billion for youth programs, antipoverty measures, small-business loans, and job training (many remain a part of government services), creating: Job Corps Youth Training Program VISTA (Volunteers in Service to America) Project Head Start – education program for underprivileged preschoolers Community Action Program – encouraged poor people to participate in public-works

programs

Johnson’s Domestic Agenda

Republicans nominated Senator Barry Goldwater in 1964 to oppose Johnson. Federal government had no business trying to fight social and

economic wrongs – poverty, discrimination, and lack of opportunity.

Attacked Social Security, wanting to make it voluntary, and the Tennessee Valley Authority, which he wanted to sell.

Most Americans believed the government could and should help solve the nation’s problems.

Goldwater frightened many by suggesting the use of nuclear weapons on Cuba and North Vietnam (Communist leader Ho Chi Minh had taken over North Vietnam).

Johnson assured that sending U.S. troops to Vietnam “would offer no solution at all to the real problem of Vietnam.”

LBJ won the election by a landslide and the Democrats increased their majority in Congress – allowing him to launch reform programs.

1964 Election

A legislative program that would end poverty and racial injustice, create a higher standard of living and equal opportunity, while also promoting a richer quality of life for all. 206 of his measures would be passed while he was in the White House (p. 690 chart). Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 provided more

than $1 billion in federal aid to help public and parochial schools purchase textbooks and new library materials.Education = “key to unlocking the door to the Great Society”

Congress changed Social Security by establishing Medicare (hospital insurance and low-cost medical insurance for almost every American 65+) and Medicaid (extending health insurance to welfare recipients).Medicare is partially funded by Social Security taxes; Medicaid is

funded by the federal government and the states.Medicare = hospitalization, nursing-home and skilled-nursing care,

and home health care.Pressure of rising health care costs coupled with the aging of the

population has put pressure on Medicare and Medicaid funding

Great Society

Appropriating money to build some 240,000 units of low-rent public housing and helping low-and moderate-income families pay for better private housing; Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) – administer federal housing programs.

Immigration Act of 1965 opened the door for many non-European immigrants to settle in the United States by ending quotas based on nationality (Immigration Act of 1924 and the National Origins Act of 1924 established quotas and discriminated strongly against non-Western European groups). Great boost to the number of non-European immigrants

(Hispanic/Asian-Americans) Water Quality Act of 1965 – required states to clean up rivers;

ordered the government to search out the worst chemical polluters. Convinced Congress to pass major safety laws, including a truth-in-

packaging law that set standards for labeling consumer goods. Wholesome Meat Act of 1967 – precautionary standards for food.

Great Society continued…

Liberal reform also took hold in the Supreme Court under Chief Justice Earl Warren (took activist stance on leading issues of the day). Warren Court: Brown v. Board of Education Topeka, Kansas (1954), banned state-

sanctioned prayer in public schools, declared state-required loyalty oaths unconstitutional, limited the power of communities to censor books and films, free speech included wearing antiwar articles of clothing.

Reapportionment – way in which states redraw election districts based on the changing number of people in them.

Many states failed to change their congressional districts to reflect the development shift of people moving to cities and suburbs, allowing voters in rural areas to have more representation (power) than the greater population.

Baker v. Carr (1962) and Reynolds v. Sims (1964) – shift of political power from rural to urban areas.

Rights of the Accused (based on constitutional principles of due process and the assumption of innocence until proven guilty): Mapp v. Ohio (1961); Gideon v. Wainwright (1963); Escobedo v. Illinois (1964); Miranda v. Arizona (1966).

Liberals praised the decisions, arguing they placed necessary limits on police power and protected the right of all citizens to a fair trial.

Conservatives criticized the Court – benefited criminal suspects and severely limited the power of the police to investigate crimes. Republican candidates in the 60s and 70s seized on the “crime issue”, portraying liberals and

Democrats as being soft on crime.

Warren Court

No president in the post-World War II era extended the power and reach of the federal government more than Lyndon Johnson, which fueled and activist era in all three branches of government. “War on Poverty” did help, although many proposals were hastily

conceived and proved difficult to accomplish. Massive tax cut spurred the economy Funding the Great Society contributed to a growing budget

deficit – continuing for decadesConservative backlash began as questions about government

finances, as well as debates over the effectiveness of these programs and the role of the federal government, left people disillusioned.

Increase of Communist forces in Vietnam began to overshadow the goals of the Great Society Johnson, who was a peace candidate in 1964, became a war

supporter (hawk) - Vietnam.

Impact of the Great Society