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Chapter 2: Culture and Society1ANTHONY GIDDENS MITCHELL DUNEIER RICHARD APPELBAUM DEBORA CARRSlides created by Shannon Anderson, Roanoke CollegeThird Edition 2011 W. W. Norton Co., Inc.1Today we will talk about culture and societywords you likely use oftenin a distinctly sociological way. You will need to think about culture a bit differently here, considering its building blocks, variations, and how it is part of what makes us and our societies uniquely human.What is culture?Culture is a set of values, norms, and behaviors shared by a social group.A way of life and the societys design for livingA societys system of shared and learned values and norms; The totality of learned and socially transmitted behaviorIt is a product of interaction of material and non-material2 2011 W. W. Norton Co., Inc.The sociological study of culture began with Emile Durkheim as he attempted to understand what held societies together. What sociologists now see as crucial for understanding how societies work is that a culture is a set of values, beliefs, norms, and material objects shared by those in a particular society. While we all probably have a sense of what values are, we also need to understand what norms are. Norms are essentially the rules of our society, most of which are actually unwritten. Your textbook, for example, talks about the rules of eye contact and how these vary between societies. The material objects that help constitute culture are perhaps what people most often think of in this vein: food, clothing, art, buildings, and other things of that nature.2An expanded notion of cultureCulture also encapsulates the way of life of a social group.Ann Swidler (1986) described a cultural toolkit from which we can choose the appropriate toolsvalues, norms, practicesfor any social situation.Key point: culture is learned, not instinctual or inherited.3 2011 W. W. Norton Co., Inc.But now you need to have a broader understanding of what culture is. Culture is much more that those material goods: culture is an entire way of life, and it is something that we all must learn within our own society. In other words, a core characteristic of culture includes that it is acquired. Culture is not instinctive or innate to either individuals or groups and is largely learned through the process of socialization. Once learned, once internalized, that cultural knowledge is like a set of tools that we draw on throughout our lives. In fact, we typically become so comfortabletake our own culture so utterly for grantedthat it is only when we are confronted with a different culture that we become starkly aware of it.Characteristics of CultureCulture is learnedCulture is socially transmittedCulture is a social productCulture is unconsciousCulture is adaptiveCulture has sanctions and controlsCulture is stable yet dynamicCulture is both material and non-material

2011 W. W. Norton Co., Inc.Components of CultureMaterial Culture

FoodClothing

Non-Material Culture

Values and BeliefsNorms Symbols / GesturesLanguage 2011 W. W. Norton Co., Inc.

Superstructure: A cultures worldview, including morals and values, oftentimes grounded in religionSocial structure: The rule-governed relationshipswith all their rights and obligationsthat hold members of a society together. This includes households, families, associations, and power relations, including politics.Infrastructure: The economic foundation of a society, including its subsistence practices and the tools and other material equipment used to make a living. The Barrel Model of CultureWhat is Culture? 2011 W. W. Norton Co., Inc.

Culture is like an Iceberg 2011 W. W. Norton Co., Inc.NormsValues are the building blocks of Norms, which are basic rules of social conduct.Expectations about the way people do things in a specific countrySocial rules and guidelines; guide appropriate behavior for specific situationsThree kinds: Folkways, Mores and Laws Positive Mores : you can Negative Mores : you cant

2011 W. W. Norton Co., Inc.Values and Belief SystemThose ideals that a society holds above all others (e.g., honesty, honor).Abstract ideas about the good, the right, and the desirable

2011 W. W. Norton Co., Inc.Symbols/GesturesAnything that the society has agreed upon to signify a meaning or understanding within and between its people 2011 W. W. Norton Co., Inc.LanguageLanguage is one of the most significant cultural universals (others include marriage and art).11 2011 W. W. Norton Co., Inc.Though social life is incredibly diverse, there do remain a few cultural universals across all human societies. Cultural universals are aspects of culture that are found the world over. They may look different from place to place, but the fact is they are there. For example, all societies have a concept of family. What that means and whom it includes may vary, but family is always present.

Another highly significant cultural universal is language. All cultures have some kind of highly developed system of communication that allows for the transmission and comprehension of complex, abstract thoughts. When you think back to what sets humans apart from other animals, you can see, in part, why language is so important. Without languageoral, written, non-verbalwe could not express the meaning of our lives nor think into the future. Additionally, language, or more precisely, the language of our own culture, shapes the very way we understand the world.11Symbols/Gestures

2011 W. W. Norton Co., Inc.Symbols/Gestures

2011 W. W. Norton Co., Inc.Symbols/Gestures

2011 W. W. Norton Co., Inc.Symbols/Gestures

2011 W. W. Norton Co., Inc.

2011 W. W. Norton Co., Inc.Cultural DiffusionProcess of spreading cultural traits or social process from a society to another through direct contact and exposure to the new form.17 2011 W. W. Norton Co., Inc.Another important thing to understand about culture, which I have alluded to already, is that it varies. It is likely clear to you the ways in which culture might vary between societies: foods, religions, and even ideals are different even between Western societies like the United States and Great Britain.

It may, however, be less easy to perceive the ways in which cultural variation exists within a society, but an example should help. Here in the United States it used to be the norm that boys and girls had totally different paths for their education: boys (wealthy ones, that is) were to have a classical education, while girls were to achieve basic literacy and then to focus on how to run a home. Obviously these are no longer norms today, thus illustrating the way culture changes over time, and more broadly, the flexibility of culture. Cultural AssimilationBlending or fusion of two distinct culture through long periods of interaction

Involves borrowing and imitation that leads to permanent cultural diffusion18Acculturation 2011 W. W. Norton Co., Inc.Another important thing to understand about culture, which I have alluded to already, is that it varies. It is likely clear to you the ways in which culture might vary between societies: foods, religions, and even ideals are different even between Western societies like the United States and Great Britain.

It may, however, be less easy to perceive the ways in which cultural variation exists within a society, but an example should help. Here in the United States it used to be the norm that boys and girls had totally different paths for their education: boys (wealthy ones, that is) were to have a classical education, while girls were to achieve basic literacy and then to focus on how to run a home. Obviously these are no longer norms today, thus illustrating the way culture changes over time, and more broadly, the flexibility of culture. EnculturationDeliberate infusion of a new culture to another

Biological or hereditary fusion of societies19Amalgamation 2011 W. W. Norton Co., Inc.Another important thing to understand about culture, which I have alluded to already, is that it varies. It is likely clear to you the ways in which culture might vary between societies: foods, religions, and even ideals are different even between Western societies like the United States and Great Britain.

It may, however, be less easy to perceive the ways in which cultural variation exists within a society, but an example should help. Here in the United States it used to be the norm that boys and girls had totally different paths for their education: boys (wealthy ones, that is) were to have a classical education, while girls were to achieve basic literacy and then to focus on how to run a home. Obviously these are no longer norms today, thus illustrating the way culture changes over time, and more broadly, the flexibility of culture. Culture ShockFeeling of disbelief, disorganization and frustration after an encounter with a different cultural pattern or practice.20 2011 W. W. Norton Co., Inc.Another important thing to understand about culture, which I have alluded to already, is that it varies. It is likely clear to you the ways in which culture might vary between societies: foods, religions, and even ideals are different even between Western societies like the United States and Great Britain.

It may, however, be less easy to perceive the ways in which cultural variation exists within a society, but an example should help. Here in the United States it used to be the norm that boys and girls had totally different paths for their education: boys (wealthy ones, that is) were to have a classical education, while girls were to achieve basic literacy and then to focus on how to run a home. Obviously these are no longer norms today, thus illustrating the way culture changes over time, and more broadly, the flexibility of culture. Cultural DiversityAcceptance of different culture with respect each other's differences.

Disenfranchisement of culture through absorption of a local culture by a dominant outside culture21Cultural Hemogenity 2011 W. W. Norton Co., Inc.Another type of diversity that we can look at is diversity within a single society. The ways we usually think about diversity have to do with things like race and ethnicity, but there are also groups, called subcultures, whose differences from the mainstream are primarily in terms of beliefs, values, and behaviors. It may be that subcultures sometimes line up with racial or ethnic distinctions, but there are also many subcultures that do not. As your textbook points out, groups like Goths and hackers, as well as Wiccans and Deadheads, are subcultures, and clearly race does not determine membership in these. 21Cultural VariationCulture varies both across and within societies.What is important and seemingly normal in one society may not be in another.Even within a society, the dominant values and norms change over time.

22 2011 W. W. Norton Co., Inc.Another important thing to understand about culture, which I have alluded to already, is that it varies. It is likely clear to you the ways in which culture might vary between societies: foods, religions, and even ideals are different even between Western societies like the United States and Great Britain.

It may, however, be less easy to perceive the ways in which cultural variation exists within a society, but an example should help. Here in the United States it used to be the norm that boys and girls had totally different paths for their education: boys (wealthy ones, that is) were to have a classical education, while girls were to achieve basic literacy and then to focus on how to run a home. Obviously these are no longer norms today, thus illustrating the way culture changes over time, and more broadly, the flexibility of culture. Cultural DiversitySub-Culture - A subculture is a group whose norms and values differ from those of the mainstream.

Counter-Culture - Subculture whose standards come in conflict with and oppose the conventional standards of the dominant culture

23 2011 W. W. Norton Co., Inc.Another important thing to understand about culture, which I have alluded to already, is that it varies. It is likely clear to you the ways in which culture might vary between societies: foods, religions, and even ideals are different even between Western societies like the United States and Great Britain.

It may, however, be less easy to perceive the ways in which cultural variation exists within a society, but an example should help. Here in the United States it used to be the norm that boys and girls had totally different paths for their education: boys (wealthy ones, that is) were to have a classical education, while girls were to achieve basic literacy and then to focus on how to run a home. Obviously these are no longer norms today, thus illustrating the way culture changes over time, and more broadly, the flexibility of culture. MulticulturalismJudging other cultures based on their own norms and standards

Social institutions found in virtually all societies.

24Universal Culture 2011 W. W. Norton Co., Inc.Another important thing to understand about culture, which I have alluded to already, is that it varies. It is likely clear to you the ways in which culture might vary between societies: foods, religions, and even ideals are different even between Western societies like the United States and Great Britain.

It may, however, be less easy to perceive the ways in which cultural variation exists within a society, but an example should help. Here in the United States it used to be the norm that boys and girls had totally different paths for their education: boys (wealthy ones, that is) were to have a classical education, while girls were to achieve basic literacy and then to focus on how to run a home. Obviously these are no longer norms today, thus illustrating the way culture changes over time, and more broadly, the flexibility of culture. Cultural CentrismEtnocentrism - Viewing ones own culture as normal and, oftentimes, superior.Xenocentrism Viewing a foreign culture as superior and that his own culture is inferior to that foreign culture.Noble Savage Mentality Judging a simpler lifestyle as better or more acceptable

25 2011 W. W. Norton Co., Inc.Another important thing to understand about culture, which I have alluded to already, is that it varies. It is likely clear to you the ways in which culture might vary between societies: foods, religions, and even ideals are different even between Western societies like the United States and Great Britain.

It may, however, be less easy to perceive the ways in which cultural variation exists within a society, but an example should help. Here in the United States it used to be the norm that boys and girls had totally different paths for their education: boys (wealthy ones, that is) were to have a classical education, while girls were to achieve basic literacy and then to focus on how to run a home. Obviously these are no longer norms today, thus illustrating the way culture changes over time, and more broadly, the flexibility of culture. Cultural RelativismJudging other cultures based on their own norms and standards

Gap between the material and non-material culture.

26Culture Lag 2011 W. W. Norton Co., Inc.Another important thing to understand about culture, which I have alluded to already, is that it varies. It is likely clear to you the ways in which culture might vary between societies: foods, religions, and even ideals are different even between Western societies like the United States and Great Britain.

It may, however, be less easy to perceive the ways in which cultural variation exists within a society, but an example should help. Here in the United States it used to be the norm that boys and girls had totally different paths for their education: boys (wealthy ones, that is) were to have a classical education, while girls were to achieve basic literacy and then to focus on how to run a home. Obviously these are no longer norms today, thus illustrating the way culture changes over time, and more broadly, the flexibility of culture. Conformity and social controlSocieties need a significant degree of conformity to function smoothly.Members learn norms through the process of socialization. Because people accept the norms and values of their societies as natural, they largely conform.Those who do not conform are subject to measures of social control.27 2011 W. W. Norton Co., Inc.What culture does is provide a shared basis for social life, for life within a society. In other words, culturewhich has been internalized in the members of any particular society via socializationcoerces people to stay within the norm. This coercion, which we mostly do not feel, is significant in establishing a harmonious, shared social life. Why dont we feel it? Mostly because, through successful socialization, our culture feels natural to us; there are aspects of our culture that we even describe as second nature. What this means is that we do not chafe at the norms of our society because we accept them as right and proper rather than as social constructions. Even so, of course, there are people who do not conform, and as youll see more specifically in Chapter 6, those individuals and groups are subject to varying levels of social control (what you might think of as punishment).Nature and nurtureSociologists now study how nature and nurture interact to produce particular behaviors.The interest in nurture has led to an ongoing focus on the importance of socialization.Examining cultural variation offers evidence of the role of the social in explaining human behaviors and values.28 2011 W. W. Norton Co., Inc.So how do sociologists approach explanations of human behavior? To start, we go to the beginning of human life and study the process of socialization, which we will be covering in much more detail very soon. Looking at how the social world affects the actions of individuals allows us to see more clearly than ever the significance of culture and of cultural variation. Since we do not accept the notion that biology is destiny, we must continually seek other explanations for social behaviors and values.SocializationBecoming Human and HumaneANTHONY GIDDENS MITCHELL DUNEIER RICHARD APPELBAUM DEBORA CARRSlides created by Shannon Anderson, Roanoke CollegeThird Edition 2011 W. W. Norton Co., Inc.IntroductionSocialization- the lifelong process of learning to become a member of the social worldInteraction - the basic processes of socialization through which a child is shaped into a human being, learns its culture, and becomes a member of a societySocial self - the changing perceptions we have of who we are as a result of ongoing socialization, from birth to death. 2011 W. W. Norton Co., Inc.Development of the selfSelf - the perceptions we have of who we are which are developed from our perceptions of the way others respond to us in our myriad interactionsThe development of the self begins at birth and through infancyBiology and sociology both contribute to the development of the self 2011 W. W. Norton Co., Inc.Self-Concept: Who Am I?Our sense of selfSelf-conceptSelf-schemasSelf-reference effectPossible selvesDevelopment of the social selfThe roles we playSocial identitySuccess and failureSocial comparisonsOther peoples judgments 2011 W. W. Norton Co., Inc.32Who Am I? The Self

2011 W. W. Norton Co., Inc.33The Nature vs. Nurture DebateThe debate over whether biology (genes, evolution) or socialization explains the self and all human behaviorsSociobiology (evolutionary psychology)- is a bio-determinist theory that claims our genetic make-up wires us for certain social behaviorsNot well accepted by most sociologists > 1920sGreatly abused in from 1850 (Social Darwinism) all the way to 1945 (Fascism) 2011 W. W. Norton Co., Inc.Socialization and the social worldMost of our experiences are a part of our socialization experienceMicro-level- e.g., parents, friendsMeso-level- e.g., schools and religionMacro-level- e.g., national advertisementsOrganizations and institutions are dependent upon socialized people to help them persist: school, boot camp, internship, church school, etc. 2011 W. W. Norton Co., Inc.36

2011 W. W. Norton Co., Inc.Deviance and Social ControlBecoming Human and HumaneANTHONY GIDDENS MITCHELL DUNEIER RICHARD APPELBAUM DEBORA CARRSlides created by Shannon Anderson, Roanoke CollegeThird Edition 2011 W. W. Norton Co., Inc.What is Social Control?Any action, deliberate or unconscious, that influences conduct toward conformity, whether or not the persons being influenced are aware of the processPrimary function of law is to establish and maintain social controlWhy is social control necessary?1.Peaceful coexistence2.Predictable coexistence 2011 W. W. Norton Co., Inc.What is deviance?Deviance is a violation of ever-changing social normsDeviance is culturally dependent and historically located, exists always in juxtaposition with some normalityDeviance is socially constructed even though some of it might be characterized as an immoral absoluteDeviance is overlooked in some situations 2011 W. W. Norton Co., Inc.DeviancySome acts are inherently deviantThose who deviate are socially identified and recognizedDeviants purposely and knowingly break the lawDeviance occurs because there is a dishonest, selfish element to human nature 2011 W. W. Norton Co., Inc.Who/what is defined as deviant?Both acts and individuals (and even entire groups) can be defined as deviant: Condemn the sin, love the sinner, aliens, misfits. etc.Low status persons (e.g. ethnic minorities, poor people) are more likely to be perceived as deviant, their good behavior explained awayHigher status persons (e.g. priests, doctors) are less likely to be defined as deviant, their bad behavior explained away

2011 W. W. Norton Co., Inc.Structural Functionalist Viewpoint on DeviancyDeviance serves vital functions for societySets examples of unacceptable behaviorProvides guidelines for (opposite) behavior that is necessary to maintain social orderBonds people together through their common rejection of deviant behaviorProvides jobs for those who deal with deviantsCan signal problems in a society that need addressed (stimulate positive change)Opens societies to new and creative paths of thinking 2011 W. W. Norton Co., Inc.IntroductionStigma - the disapproval attached to disobeying the expected norms Crime - the forms of deviance in which formal penalties are imposed by the societyWe are all deviant at some time or another and in some places 2011 W. W. Norton Co., Inc.Types of crimePredatory or street crimeVictimless or public order crimesHate crimesOrganized crimeOccupational or white collar crimeState organized crimesGlobal crimes 2011 W. W. Norton Co., Inc.PunishmentPenal: subject to formal punishment; accusatory Therapeutic: subject to formal treatment; remedial Compensatory: payment of debtConciliatory: fair and reasonable solution Harry Blacks Styles of Social Control 2011 W. W. Norton Co., Inc.Punishment Formal InformalArrest, trial and sentencing byagents of the state Social shame andridiculeThe threat of legalsanctions perceivedby onlookers ("itcould happen to me")Norms reinforcedby viewing andparticipating in the punishment DirectIndirectExample: The Scarlet Letter 2011 W. W. Norton Co., Inc.Groups and OrganizationBecoming Human and HumaneANTHONY GIDDENS MITCHELL DUNEIER RICHARD APPELBAUM DEBORA CARRSlides created by Shannon Anderson, Roanoke CollegeThird Edition 2011 W. W. Norton Co., Inc.What is Social Group? The emergence of three or more individuals into a pattern of goal orientation, characterized by an interrelationship of statuses and awareness of membership. 2011 W. W. Norton Co., Inc.48Social groupsSocial groups are:People who interact with each other and share a sense of identityPeople who have a shared set of expectations (a set of social norms)Typically, there is some awareness of social boundaries.49 2011 W. W. Norton Co., Inc.Groups are more than collections of people in the same place (a social aggregate). Classes, for example, are social aggregates consisting of rooms full of students. Groups are also more than people who share some characteristic like race or gender; that would be a social category. All people with blue eyes or dark skin make up social categories, but they may or may not be groups. Sometimes social aggregates and social categories are groups, but this is not necessarily so.

So what exactly are groups? Social groups consist of people who feel a sense of membership, interact with each other, and have some shared set of social norms.Unit cohesionExample: inside an Army AcademyGiving up of self in favor of the groupBonds of discipline, loyalty, and conformityStrong sense of unit cohesion That cohesion seems rare in a highly individualistic culture like the United States.

50 2011 W. W. Norton Co., Inc.To discuss the significance of groups to human life, your textbook begins this chapter with a section discussing West Point. The journalist David Lipsky who took on an assignment to follow a cohort there from entry to graduation, started his research with a great deal of ambivalence. His socialization, like yours and mine, had led him to accept an individualist approach to life; that approach is antithetical to what is taught at West Point from Day 1 onward.

What Lipsky saw at West Point was a level of loyalty to the group that is essentially foreign to the vast majority of people living in developed Western nations today. Certainly much of that has to do with the military mission and values being taught, but Lipsky saw something more. What he saw was the power and strength that individuals derived from being part of a tight, honor-bound group with a clear set of goals and values. The group actually served to enhance the life of the individual; that was what struck him most on that assignment.Types of groupsIn-groups and out-groups: us and themPrimary and secondary groupsPrimary: the closest, most basic, intimate forms of associationSecondary: large, impersonal, impermanent forms of associationReference groups: provide social standards51 2011 W. W. Norton Co., Inc.Your textbook deals with three different ways of categorizing groups:

- In- and out-groups- Primary and secondary groups- Reference groups

In the simplest of terms, in-groups and out-groups represent us and them. Your in-groups are those in which you feel a sense of belonging, to which you feel loyal, and of which you are, typically, proud. Out-groups are other; those groups that feel different, toward which you might even feel antagonistic. This logic of us and them has serious pros and cons. It can be very fulfilling to be the member of a strong, cohesive group (the West Point example is a good one here). At the same time, if being a member of such a group leads to a set of built-in hostility to others, problems are frequently not far behind. We all need to belong to something. The question is, can we do so without strong negatives attached to those not in our group?

Primary and secondary groups are really quite straightforward. Primary groups are those, like family, in which we live our lives most fully, whose members are our intimates, and with whose members we interact very frequently. Secondary groups are those that are less close, less permanent, and often much larger. These groups are typically goal oriented. In modern societies, more and more of our lives seem to be occurring in secondary groups, which leaves some scholars concerned about the lack of depth in our intimate lives.

And finally, reference groups are those against whom we wish to be judged; they set the standard. So, for example, for better or worse, in our contemporary culture many adolescents see movie stars, musicians, and other popular culture icons as reference groups. In many cases we do not belong to our reference groups, they simply provide the standards by which we measure ourselves. (I gave the example of pop culture icons, but of course there are also more clearly positive reference groups such as family members, successful peers, and so on.)Types of Social GroupsPrimary vs. Secondary

Interpersonal vs. Instrumental

Small vs. Large

Interaction vs. Reference

2011 W. W. Norton Co., Inc.52ExamplesprimarysecondarysmalllargeFamily, gang or fraternityofficematesclassmatesBureaucracies such as Ford or AppleReference groups (NOW, NAACP, AARP) 2011 W. W. Norton Co., Inc.53Types of Social GroupsACCORDING TO SOCIAL TIES Companionship Contractual

ACCORDING TO SELF-IDENTIFICATION In-group Out-group Reference group54 2011 W. W. Norton Co., Inc.Types of Social GroupsACCORDING TO GEOGRAPHY Gemeinschaft Gesselschaft55 2011 W. W. Norton Co., Inc.Group DynamicGroup sizeGroup goalMotivationGroup CohesionConformityDecision-MakingLeadership56 2011 W. W. Norton Co., Inc.LeadershipAll groups have leaders.There are transformational leaders and transactional leaders.Transformational leaders are inspirational and change the purpose and meaning of the group.Transactional leaders are pragmatic and interested in accomplishing tasks.57 2011 W. W. Norton Co., Inc.Another thing that tends to come with larger, more formally organized groups is the presence of a clear leader. However, even small groups have leaders; all groups have leaders. Obviously the role of the leader varies depending on the type, size, and purpose of the group. A family, for instance, needs a leader just as much as a corporation, but the roles will look different.

You can see that there are two types of leaders: transformational and transactional. The transformational leader is someone who comes in, clarifiesmaybe adjuststhe mission of the group, and inspires the members to work toward something new, something transformational. , The transactional leader is more of a rule follower, a get-things-done kind of leader who will keep the group moving forward but will not focus on vision or social change. Im sure you can imagine positive and negative instances of each, and in reality one it appears that many leaders combine characteristics of both.57Social networksSocial networks are comprised of direct and indirect associations that link people and groups.Networks offer connections beyond the immediate, and thereby can extend opportunities.Different groups have access to more or less helpful networks. This exacerbates inequalities that are already in place.58 2011 W. W. Norton Co., Inc.Chances are youve all heard the phrase, Its not what you know, its whom you know. Sociologically, I would alter that phrase just a bit to say, its whom you know, and whom they know, and so on. Social networks are the multitudes of connections people have, not only directly, but also indirectly. m That is, not just your friends and relatives, but also their friends and relatives, and theirs, and theirs. . . . It is interesting that groups also have networks that can help individuals. Graduates of this school, for example, will have a network of former alums that comes along with their degree. People who are members of various clubs and organizations also have expanded networks on which they can draw.

As you might expect, these contacts, however weak, provide excellent possibilities for people, as a wide network increases the chances of knowing someone who can help in any given situation. The downside of social networks is that they tend to reproduce inequalities that are already in place. Who, for example, is more likely to have a network of people who might help in getting a great first job, the daughter of a physician or the daughter of a dishwasher? The way that networks work means that those who have access to people of influence tend to have wider networks and more possibilities than those who networks are more local, less far-reaching, and less influential.58Online social networkingOnline social networking offers many of the same benefits as conventional networks, without some of the constraints.The Internet was originally used for military and academic purposes, but now is available (and used) as a network for hundreds of millions of users.Even so, there remains unequal access.59 2011 W. W. Norton Co., Inc.Online social networking, on the other hand, bypasses some of the constraints of traditional networks. People have easier access to individuals they would not otherwise be able to reach, and the expansion of networks happens more quickly since physical proximity is not at issue. As your textbook indicates, huge numbers of Americans are using the Internet; as many as 180 million people a day are online.

One of the interesting changes that comes with online connections is that rather than basing these relationships on personal characteristics, they are typically based on shared interests. This means that at least some of the advantages that are bestowed on traditionally privileged groups in our society are reduced in an online environment. In other words, you do not have to be a wealthy, white male to construct a wide network online; opportunities are more evenly distributed than was traditionally the case.

One problem, in terms of inequality, remains: there are still those who have little or no access to the Internet. For these individuals, both traditional and electronic networks essentially work against their opportunities since they are working for so many others. 59