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Transcript of Chapter 17: Poverty Read Chapter 17 Carefully My lecture will not follow the textbook chapter as...
Chapter 17: Poverty
Read Chapter 17 CarefullyMy lecture will not follow the textbook chapter as closely as it normally does. Instead I will discuss
-Poverty measurement-How many are poor in America and why should we
care-Constructive steps in anti-poverty policy
How is Poverty Measured? Adam Smith
Relative measures – the absence of a linen shirt.
U.S. today Mollie Orshansky in the mid 1960s took the
cost of a minimally adequate diet (the Economy Food Plan) and multiplied by 3.
Since then the Orshansky measure has been increased annually by the cost of living.
The poor are those whose yearly income was below this threshold for a family of a given size.
The poverty threshold for a family of 4 is $19,484. For 3 it is $14,776.
There are clear conceptual problems with how poverty is measured in the U.S. But I will focus on other things today.
Why Are So Many Poor 40 Years After the “War on Poverty?” There is, of course, no single explanation. But
the following play some role. Changes in the U.S. economy, particularly the shift
from agriculture and manufacturing base to a “knowledge-based” service economy.
Poor schools, particularly in the urban core. Drugs, gangs, anti-social behavior. Incarceration policy, particularly for African American
men. Changes in family structure, including a startling rise
in the fraction of children raised in single parent households.
Fairly anemic public interventions.
Let Me Say Something (Brief) on the Last Three Items Incarceration policy:
In 2001 16.6 percent for black men in 2001 had spent time in a state or federal prison
Among black men without a college education and born between 1965 and 1969, 30 percent had been in prison by 1999
Among those in this cohort without high school diplomas, the proportion is nearly 60 percent.
Single-parent households: In 1990, 26.6 percent of births were to single
women. In 1998, this percentage was 32.8.
Figure 3: Total Benefits or Program Costs for Various Cash and In-Kind Programs, 1970-2002
(constant 2002 dollars)
0
5,000
10,000
15,000
20,000
25,000
30,000
35,000
40,000
1970
1972
1974
1976
1978
1980
1982
1984
1986
1988
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
To
tal B
en
efi
ts o
r P
rog
ram
Co
sts
($
mill
ion
)
Head Start Housing Aid Food Stamps AFDC/TANF EITC
Table 2
Share of Aggregate Income Receivedby Quintile of Household for OECD Nations
Country (year)
Income Quintile
FirstSecon
d ThirdFourt
h Fifth
Austria (1995) 7.0 13.2 17.9 24.0 37.9
Belgium (1996) 8.3 14.1 17.7 22.7 37.3
Canada (1997) 7.3 12.9 17.4 23.1 39.3
Czech Republic (1996) 10.3 14.5 17.7 21.7 35.9Portugal (1997) 5.8 11.0 15.5 21.9 45.9
Slovak Republic (1996) 8.8 14.9 18.7 22.8 34.8
Sweden (1995) 9.1 14.5 18.4 23.4 34.5
Turkey (2000) 6.1 10.6 14.9 21.8 46.7
United Kingdom (1995) 6.1 11.7 16.3 22.7 43.2
Unweighted average 7.6 12.7 16.9 22.5 40.3
United States (2002) 3.5 8.8 14.8 23.3 49.7
The poorest one-fifth in the U.S. receive a smaller share of
income than in the typical OECD country.
While the richest one-fifth receive considerably more.
Another Issue, Highlighted by the Krugman Reading, is that Americans appear to tolerate more income inequality than people in other
countries
One Reason to Care: Poverty and ChildrenSource: Duncan and Brooks-Gunn (1997)
11.7
16.3
10
8.1
28.8
21
11
15.9
5.4
6.5
4.7
5
4.1
14.1
9.6
3.6
1.6
0.8
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Fair or poor health
Lead poisoning
Stunting
Hospitalizations (per 100 childen)
Grade repetition
High-school dropout
Female teen out-of-wedlock birth
Experience hunger
Reported cases of child abuse and neglect
Poor Children Non-poor Children
Central Issues for Poverty Research and Policy Child poverty
More than 1 in 6 children in America live in a household with income below the poverty line.
This is after the longest economic expansion in U.S. history (from 1992-2000) and 10 years after we “ended welfare as we know it.”
Violates fundamental American values of opportunity and has high social costs.
Welfare reform and ‘devolution’ Fundamental shift in responsibility for the safety net. Similarly far-reaching changes in what states are
doing.
Central Issues, continued…
Concerns arise with Antipoverty policy (as with many policy areas) about unintended consequences Cash payments can reduce employment and/or hours of
work, and create resentment from other working families. If employment is reduced, one might worry about “role models” for
children. “Living wage” proposals may make it difficult for low-skilled
workers to find jobs. Mandatory paternity establishment and child support
guidelines – does this lead to unmarried men working in the underground economy?
It is critical for policy to be ensure the incentives align with societal norms.
THE MORAL HAZARD COSTS OF WELFARE POLICY
Prominent economist Authur Okun once compared the process of income redistribution to a “leaky bucket” We are carrying money from the rich to the poor, but some money
leaks out along the way. Redistribution comes with potentially large moral hazard costs. The social
welfare function quantifies the efficiency-equity tradeoff between less redistribution and more social efficiency, and more redistribution and less social efficiency.
The “leakage” from transfers comes from: Administrative costs. Taxation on higher income individuals may affect their labor supply
and savings. And, by insuring against being poor, safety net programs create an
incentive for individuals to change behavior to qualify for transfers.
2,000 Hours of leisureper year
$ of consumptionper year
25,000
G = 9,000
A
B
C
Z
D
X
Y
5,000
20,000
1,6001,200400
10,000
slope = -wage = -12.50
1,280
Figure 3This is the budget constraint before welfare is introduced.
Individuals make different choices based on preferences.
Welfare is introduced with a $9,000 guarantee and a
BRR of 100%.
Some will be “mechanically” eligible and reduce hours of work.
Others are initially ineligible, but reduce their work effort, too.
Behavioral responses to a welfare program with 100 percent “clawback” rates on benefits
2,000 Hours of leisureper year
$ of consumptionper year
25,000
G = 9,000
A
B2
C
Z1
D
X1
Y1
slope = -net wage = -6.25
560
Y2
X2
B1
slope = -wage = -12.50
18,000 Z2
1,280
Figure 4
Lowering the BRR changes the
budget constraint.
Hours of work fall for person X.
Hours also fall for person Y.
And person Z becomes eligible.
Lowering the benefit reduction rate improves workincentives but may cost more money…
The moral hazard costs of welfare policy
The “iron triangle” of redistributive programs
The iron triangle means that there is no way to change either the benefit reduction rate or benefit guarantee to simultaneously encourage work (have desirable incentives), redistribute more income (be compassionate), and lower costs (be good stewards of scare taxpayer dollars). If the tax rate is lowered, work could be
discouraged for some and costs could go up. If the guarantee is lowered, work increases and
costs fall, but redistribution falls.
Reducing the moral hazard of welfare
Moving to categorical welfare payments
One way to mitigate the moral hazard problem is to focus eligibility on characteristics that are easy to verify, hard to change, and relate closely to low earnings.
What characteristics make a good targeting mechanism? Characteristics that are unchangeable. Characteristics that target those with low earnings
capacity. In reality, welfare programs target
characteristics like blindness, age, disability, and single motherhood.
Reducing the moral hazard of welfare
Using “ordeal mechanisms” An alternative approach is to try get individuals to reveal
themselves as less able through ordeal mechanisms. Ordeal mechanisms are features of welfare programs that make
them unattractive, leading to self-selection of only the most needy recipients.
Work or training requirements of TANF are an example of such a mechanism – they impose a cost on individuals who are just using welfare as a means of increasing their leisure.
The provision of in-kind benefits rather than cash is another example. If the government gives away cash, then individuals who are not needy will pretend to be needy to qualify. If the government offers, instead, a somewhat run-down public housing project, those with high ability may not be interested in taking up the benefit.
The paradox of ordeal mechanisms is that by making the less able worse off could make them better off, because the government can make a fixed budget go further.
Reducing the moral hazard of welfare
Increasing outside options
The third approach to reducing moral hazard is to increase the outside options available so that it is no longer as attractive to be on welfare.
There are five different approaches the government can take to increase outside opportunities for welfare recipients: Training Labor market subsidies Child care Child support Removing welfare lock
So, The Causes of Poverty Are Complex, the Consequences are Severe, and the There are Difficult Constraints in Designing Programs in a Way That Maintain Good Incentives…
Is the Current state of affairs inevitable? I want to say a little now about efforts
to combat poverty, focusing on “what works.”
What Works? Public Expenditures Can Reduce
Poverty and Inequality One possibility is to look at data from
other countries. These comparisons mask many differences:
structure and dynamism of the economies, ethnic homogeneity, and perhaps other cultural differences.
Cross-country measures are difficult to construct. Most common international standard is to measure the fraction of the population with income that is less than half the median.
With these caveats…
Relative Poverty Rates and Antipoverty Effects in 8 Rich Nations at the Turn of the Century
(Percent of Persons with Market Income and Disposable Income Less than Half of Adjusted National Disposable Median Income)
Source: Smeeding (2004)
9.8
5.4
6.4
7.9
8.2
8.9
11.9
12.3
17.0
26.1
18.1
29.2
31
28.6
21.6
24.8
31.8
23.7
0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0
Overall Average
Finland 2000
Sweden 2000
Belgium 1997
Germany 2000
Netherlands 1999
Canada 1997
UK 1999
US 2000
Percent of Population
Market Income (Pre- Tax and Transfer) Poverty
Disposable Income (Post- Tax and Transfer) Poverty
Relationship of Cash Social Expenditures for the Non-elderly and 10/50 Ratios in Eighteen Countries in the 1990s, Source: Smeeding (2004)
United States
Italy
Canada United KingdomAustralia
Spain
Japan
Germany
Denmark
Netherlands
FinlandSweden
BelgiumFrance
Luxembourg
Norway
Russia
Mexico
R2 = 0.7224
25.0
30.0
35.0
40.0
45.0
50.0
55.0
60.0
65.0
70.0
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0 18.0
Non-elderly and Cash and Near-Cash Social Expenditure Level (as Percent of GDP)
P10
(10
th t
o 5
0th
Per
cen
tile
)
What Works? A Strong Economy! March 1991-March 2001: 120 months free of
recession Payroll employment increased by over 20
million jobs over this period. Unemployment was around 4 percent. Wage growth since 1993 has been evenly
distributed across income groups. Poverty rates fell and welfare caseloads declined a
great deal. The 1980s, where growth was strong but poverty did not
fall much, differed from the 1990s, where growth was accompanied by sharp reductions in poverty.
What Works? The Earned Income Tax Credit The EITC raised the incomes of 4.3 million
people above the poverty line in 1998. 54 percent of the EITC directly fills the
“poverty gap.” It reduces the poverty gap by 5.2 percent.
The EITC positively affects labor market participation for single-parent families. One prominent study finds the EITC accounts
for 63 (37) percent of substantial increase in LFP of single mothers between 1984-96 (1992-96).
What Works? Investments in Early Childhood Education! “Recent studies of early childhood investment
show remarkable success…” “Early childhood interventions of high quality have
lasting effects on learning and motivation.” “An important lesson to draw from the entire
literature on successful early interventions is that the social skills and motivation of the child that are more easily altered – not IQ. These social and emotional skills affect performance in school and in the workplace. We too often have a bias that only cognitive skills are of fundamental importance to success in life.”
Nobel Laureate James Heckman
What Works? Welfare Reform
Good news Sharply declining caseloads. No systematic evidence of increased
homelessness, food pantry usage, etc. Substantial numbers of former
recipients have equal or higher family incomes.
Considerable diversity and creativity in State programs.
What Works? Welfare Reform (continued) Bad news
The safety net is gone. The food stamp eligibility process can be a nightmare in some places and TANF is time-limited.
Few families have reached time limits. No minimum national standards. Wicked problems remain: family structure, crime
and incarcerations, horrible schools, lack of affordable, high-quality child care, insurance…
Fiscal pressures burden state policymakers and their citizens. The safety net is frayed.
While We Know a Lot About the Poverty Problem Welfare reform is clearly not
A “silver bullet” – many households appear as well or better off, but child poverty rates are still very high.
Extreme US-style devolution can still lead to a “race to the bottom.”
The system appeared to have survived a mild recession, but can it stand up to a more severe fiscal downturn?
There is no systematic evaluation requirement.
In Closing The problems are exceptionally difficult.
Poorly performing schools, poor labor markets for low-skilled workers, drugs, crime, children being raised in single-parent households.
These create formidable problems for some families and individuals to achieve a standard of living above poverty.
The fiscal situation is fairly dire, though this can turn around reasonably quickly with prudent fiscal management.
The politics and problem of poverty have not yet stirred the voting public. Though some (John Edwards most recently) have tried to
push this forward.
An Essential Part of the Story: Combating Policy Cynicism We will never make progress if the public is
convinced that “nothing works.” Antipoverty policy requires an activist government. There is a long cycle of policy initiatives where initial
ideas are hyped, there is inadequate implementation and expenditures, and later, the problem remains.
This gives the perception that “nothing works.” It is essential for advocates, scholars, and citizens to
tell the stories and gather evidence for cost-effective approaches that work.
I have listed a set of policies today, that can form the basis of an efficient, successful anti-poverty strategy.
Moving Forward
Welfare reform, which many (including me) thought was punitive and ill-considered, may result in a more effective antipoverty policy, if… Careful evaluation is conducted on state initiatives to
better understand what works. Taxpayers believe that all need to work and that “poor
support” is targeted to families “doing the right thing.” There is a striking difference in American’s antipathy toward
“welfare” and their professed willingness to “assisting the poor.”
Serious, successful efforts to reduce poverty can be an enduring part of national politics.