Chapter 16

Nonrenewable Energy

Core Case Study: How Long Will the Oil Party Last?

Saudi Arabia could supply the world with oil for about 10 years.

The Alaska’s North Slope could meet the world oil demand for 6 months (U.S.: 3 years).

Alaska’s Arctic National Wildlife Refuge would meet the world demand for 1-5 months (U.S.: 7-25 months).

Core Case Study: How Long Will the Oil Party Last?

We have three options:Look for more oil.Use or waste less oil.Use something else.

Figure 16-1Figure 16-1

TYPES OF ENERGY RESOURCES About 99% of the energy we use for heat

comes from the sun and the other 1% comes mostly from burning fossil fuels.Solar energy indirectly supports wind power,

hydropower, and biomass.

About 76% of the commercial energy we use comes from nonrenewable fossil fuels (oil, natural gas, and coal) with the remainder coming from renewable sources.

TYPES OF ENERGY RESOURCES

Nonrenewable energy resources and geothermal energy in the earth’s crust.


TYPES OF ENERGY RESOURCES

Commercial energy use by source for the world (left) and the U.S. (right).


TYPES OF ENERGY RESOURCES Net energy is the amount of high-quality

usable energy available from a resource after subtracting the energy needed to make it available.

Remember the second law of thermodynamics!

Net energy ratio – useful energy produced/energy used to produce it

Net Energy Ratios

The higher the net energy ratio, the greater the net energy available. Ratios < 1 indicate a net energy loss.


OIL Crude oil (petroleum) is a thick liquid containing

hydrocarbons that we extract from underground deposits and separate into products such as gasoline, heating oil and asphalt.Only 35-50% can be economically recovered from a

deposit.As prices rise, about 10-25% more can be recovered

from expensive secondary extraction techniques.○ This lowers the net energy yield.

OIL Refining crude oil:

Based on boiling points, components are removed at various layers in a giant distillation column.

The most volatile components with the lowest boiling points are removed at the top.


OIL World’s largest business Eleven OPEC (Organization of

Petroleum Exporting Countries) have 78% of the world’s proven oil reserves and most of the world’s unproven reserves.

An oil reserve is an identified deposit from which crude oil can be extracted profitably at current prices and current technology.

2007 World Proved Reserves

After global production peaks and begins a slow decline, oil prices will rise and could threaten the economies of countries that have not shifted to new energy alternatives.

Top three oil consuming nations U.S. (60%) China (33%) Japan (100%)

Source: U.S Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration

Oil Refining Capabilities

Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries control most oil refining.

Supply and demand economics are therefore interrupted by a multi-stage process dictating the supply.

Historic Oil Prices

Source: Lindstrom, Kirk. Inflation adjusted oil prices fall on strong USD. Seeking Alpha. 19 Oct, 2008. Retrieved 26 Mar, 2009 from http://seekingalpha.com/article/100560-inflation-adjusted-oil-prices-fall-on-strong-usd

As Oil Prices Rise… Prices of food and products produced from

petrochemicals will rise. People will necessary move down the food

chain. Food production may become more localized. More land will be used to produce renewable

biomass crops. Air travel and air freight may decline. Re-urbanization

Case Study: U.S. Oil Supplies The U.S. – the world’s largest oil user –

has only 2.9% of the world’s proven oil reserves.

U.S oil production peaked in 1974 (halfway production point).

About 60% of U.S oil imports go through refineries in hurricane-prone regions of the Gulf Coast.

Alaskan Oil Pipeline

Carries 2 million barrels a day of crude oil from the Prudhoe Bay oil field 789 miles south to Southern Alaska to be loaded onto tankers destined for refineries. Represents 25% of the U.S. crude oil reserves.

OIL Burning oil for

transportation accounts for 43% of global CO2 emissions.


CO2 Emissions

CO2 emissions per unit of energy produced for various energy resources.


Heavy Oils Heavy and tarlike oils from oil sand and oil

shale could supplement conventional oil, but there are environmental problems.High sulfur content.Extracting and processing produces:

○ Toxic sludge○ Uses and contaminates larges volumes of water○ Requires large inputs of natural gas which

reduces net energy yield.○ Deforestation

Oil Sands Bitumen can be extracted Athabascan Oil Sands

deposits equal in area to U.S. states of MD and VA.

Supply 1/5 of Canadian energy needs.

Production costs high ($13/barrel vs. $1-2 for conventional production.

1.8 mt of oil sand = 1 barrel of oil.

China invested heavily.

Canadian Oil Sand Pit Mine

Athabascan River Surface Water Allocations

Oil Shales

Oil shales contain a solid combustible mixture of hydrocarbons called kerogen.


When Does the Oil Party End?

NATURAL GAS Natural gas consists mostly of methane and

other gaseous hydrocarbons.Conventional natural gas

○ found above reservoirs of crude oil.○ When a natural gas-field is tapped, gasses are

liquefied and removed as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG).

Unconventional natural gas○ Coal bed methane gas○ Methane hydrate

bubbles of methane trapped in ice crystals deep under the arctic permafrost and beneath deep-ocean sediments

Natu

ral G

as

Pro

cess

ing

Natural Gas Production

NATURAL GAS Some analysts see

natural gas as the best fuel to help us make the transition to improved energy efficiency and greater use of renewable energy.


COAL

Coal is a solid fossil fuel that is formed in several stages as the buried remains of land plants that lived 300-400 million years ago.


COAL

Most abundant fossil fuel Generates 62% of world’s electricity and is used to

make 75% of its steel Anthracite (98% carbon) is most desirable but

least common. Lower grades of coal have increasing traces of

sulfur, toxic mercury, and radioactive materials that are released upon burning.

Extraction by subsurface mining, area strip mining, contour strip mining, and mountaintop removal are environmentally damaging.

Fig. 16-13, p. 369

Waste heat

Coal bunker TurbineCooling tower

transfers waste heat to

atmosphere

Generator

Cooling loop

Stack

Pulverizing mill

Condenser Filter

Boiler

Toxic ash disposal

COAL

Coal reserves in the United States (27%), Russia (17%), and China (13%) could last hundreds to over a thousand years.In 2005, China and

the U.S. accounted for 53% of the global coal consumption.

COAL Coal is the most

abundant fossil fuel, but compared to oil and natural gas it is not as versatile, has a high environmental impact, and releases much more CO2 into the troposphere.


COAL Synfuels

Coal can be converted into synthetic natural gas (SNG or syngas) and liquid fuels (such as methanol or synthetic gasoline) that burn cleaner than coal.Requires mining 50% more coalCosts are high.Burning them adds more CO2 to the

troposphere than burning coal.

COAL

Since CO2 is not regulated as an air pollutant and costs are high, U.S. coal-burning plants are unlikely to invest in coal gasification.


Clean Coal Technology

Multiple technologies aimed at cleaning coal and containing its emissions

• Coal washing• Wet scrubbers (flue gas desulfurization systems)

• Low-NOx burners

• Electrostatic precipitators• Oxy-fuel combustion

• Pre-combustion capture

Clean Coal Technology Regardless of method, the CO2 must be sequestered – either in a

commercially viable product or stored deep underground or in the oceans.

1. CO2 pumped into disused coal fields displaces methane which can be used as fuel2. CO2 can be pumped into and stored safely in saline aquifers3. CO2 pumped into oil fields helps maintain pressure, making extraction easier

NUCLEAR ENERGY

When isotopes of uranium and plutonium undergo controlled nuclear fission, the resulting heat produces steam that spins turbines to generate electricity.The uranium oxide consists of about 97%

nonfissionable uranium-238 and 3% fissionable uranium-235.

The concentration of uranium-235 is increased through an enrichment process.

Fig. 16-16, p. 372

Small amounts of radioactive gases

Uranium fuel input (reactor core)

Control rodsContainment shell

Heat exchanger

Steam Turbine Generator

Waste heat

Electric power

Hot coolant

Useful energy 25%–30%Hot

water outputPumpPump

Coolant Pump Pump

Moderator

Cool water input

Waste heat

Shielding Pressure vessel

Coolant passage

Water CondenserPeriodic removal and storage of radioactive wastes and spent fuel assemblies

Periodic removal and storage of radioactive liquid wastes

Water source (river, lake, ocean)

NUCLEAR ENERGY After three or four

years in a reactor, spent fuel rods are removed and stored in a deep pool of water contained in a steel-lined concrete container.


NUCLEAR ENERGY

After spent fuel rods are cooled considerably, they are sometimes moved to dry-storage containers made of steel or concrete.


Fig. 16-18, p. 373

Decommissioning of reactorFuel assemblies

ReactorEnrichment of UF6 Fuel fabricationFuel fabrication

(conversion of enriched UF(conversion of enriched UF66

to UOto UO22 and fabrication of and fabrication of

fuel assemblies)fuel assemblies) Temporary storage of Temporary storage of spent fuel assemblies spent fuel assemblies underwater or in dry underwater or in dry caskscasks

Conversion of U3O8 to UF6

Uranium-235 as UFUranium-235 as UF66

Plutonium-239 as PuOPlutonium-239 as PuO22

Spent fuel Spent fuel reprocessingreprocessing

Low-level radiation Low-level radiation with long half-lifewith long half-life

Geologic disposal of moderate &

high-level radioactive

wastesOpen fuel cycle today

“Closed” end fuel cycle

What Happened to Nuclear Power? After more than 50 years of

development and enormous government subsidies, nuclear power has not lived up to its promise because:Multi billion-dollar construction costs.Higher operation costs and more

malfunctions than expected.Poor management.Public concerns about safety and stricter

government safety regulations.

Case Study: The Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant Accident The world’s worst nuclear

power plant accident occurred in 1986 in Ukraine.

The disaster was caused by poor reactor design and human error. Resulted in an 18-mile (30 km)

Exclusion Zone By 2005, 56 people had died

from radiation related illnesses. 4,000 more are expected from

thyroid cancer and leukemia. Over 600,000 clean up workers

exposed to some elevated levels of radiation.

U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission

NUCLEAR ENERGY In 1995, the World

Bank said nuclear power is too costly and risky.

In 2006, it was found that several U.S. reactors were leaking radioactive tritium into groundwater.


NUCLEAR ENERGY A 1,000 megawatt

nuclear plant is refueled once a year, whereas a coal plant requires 80 rail cars a day.


NUCLEAR ENERGY

Terrorists could attack nuclear power plants, especially poorly protected pools and casks that store spent nuclear fuel rods.

Terrorists could wrap explosives around small amounts of radioactive materials that are fairly easy to get, detonate such bombs, and contaminate large areas for decades.

NUCLEAR ENERGY When a nuclear reactor reaches the end

of its useful life, its highly radioactive materials must be kept from reaching the environment for thousands of years.

At least 228 large commercial reactors worldwide (20 in the U.S.) are scheduled for retirement by 2012.Many reactors are applying to extent their

40-year license to 60 years.Aging reactors are subject to embrittlement

and corrosion.

NUCLEAR ENERGY

Building more nuclear power plants will not lessen dependence on imported oil and will not reduce CO2 emissions as much as other alternatives.The nuclear fuel cycle contributes to CO2

emissions.Wind turbines, solar cells, geothermal

energy, and hydrogen contributes much less to CO2 emissions.

NUCLEAR ENERGY Scientists disagree about the best methods for

long-term storage of high-level radioactive waste:Bury it deep underground.Shoot it into space.Bury it in the Antarctic ice sheet.Bury it in the deep-ocean floor that is geologically

stable.Change it into harmless or less harmful isotopes.

New and Safer Reactors

Pebble bed modular reactor (PBMR) are smaller reactors that minimize the chances of runaway chain reactions.


Fig. 16-21, p. 380

Each pebble contains about 10,000 uranium dioxide particles the size of a pencil point.

Pebble detailSilicon carbide

Pyrolytic carbon

Porous buffer

Uranium dioxide

Graphite shell Helium

TurbineGenerator

Pebble

Core Hot water output

RecuperatorReactor vessel Water

cooler

Cool water input

New and Safer Reactors Some oppose the pebble reactor due

to :A crack in the reactor could release

radioactivity.The design has been rejected by UK and

Germany for safety reasons.Lack of containment shell would make it

easier for terrorists to blow it up or steal radioactive material.

Creates higher amount of nuclear waste and increases waste storage expenses.

NUCLEAR ENERGY Nuclear fusion is a nuclear change in

which two isotopes are forced together.No risk of meltdown or radioactive releases.May also be used to breakdown toxic

material.Still in laboratory stages.

There is a disagreement over whether to phase out nuclear power or keep this option open in case other alternatives do not pan out.

Resources"About the Alberta Oil Sands." Our Adventure Pages. 05 Dec 2008. 30 Mar 2009

<http://randsco.com/index.php/2006/02/05/Roaring_Dinosaurs-Prosperous_Alberta>. Anthracite coal. Digital image. Coal Camp Memories Curriculum. 30 Mar. 2009

<www.coalcampmemories.com/uses.html>.

"BBC NEWS | Science/Nature | Clean coal technology: How it works." BBC NEWS | News Front Page. 28 Nov. 2005. 30 Mar. 2009 <http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4468076.stm>.

“Chernobyl.” Cold War: A Brief History. 2008. Web. 19 Mar, 2010.

Denning, Dan. "OPEC Agrees Not to Cut Oil Production Until it Meets in May." ShareCafe. 16 Mar 2009. The Financial Arena Pty Ltd. 30 Mar 2009 <http://www.sharecafe.com.au/dreck.asp?a=AV&ai=12202>.

Dowdey, Sarah. "What is clean coal technology?." 18 July 2007. HowStuffWorks.com. <http://science.howstuffworks.com/clean-coal.htm> 30 March 2009.

Global Oil Reserves-to-Production Ratios, 2004. Digital image. Earth Trends. 2005. World Resources Institute. 30 Mar. 2009 <http://earthtrends.wri.org/maps_spatial/maps_detail_static.php?map_select=505&theme=6>.

"Globeandmail.com : A Climate for Action." Globeandmail.com: Canada's National Newspaper. 02 Oct. 2007. 30 Mar. 2009 <http://www.theglobeandmail.com/partners/free/sr/07/climate/article_10.html>.

"Natural Gas Information." Natural Gas Bank. 30 Mar 2009 <http://www.naturalgasbank.com/>."Oil, Coal, and Gas Reserves, Peak Oil, Global Energy Use Statistics - Earth Web Site." Global Education

Project. 30 Mar. 2009 <http://www.theglobaleducationproject.org/earth/energy-supply.php>. "The rise of oil prices - driven by fundamentals or speculation?." moneyvidya blog. 09 Aug 2008. 30 Mar 2009

<www.moneyvidya.com/blog/tag/futures/>.

ResourcesWood, David & Saeid Mokhatab. "Control & influences on world oil price - Part 2: How value is extracted

from oil along its supply chains." Oil & Gas Financial Journal. Nov 2006. PennWell Corporation. 30 Mar 2009 <http://www.ogfj.com/display_article/276355/82/ARCHI/none/none/1/Control-&-influences-on-world-oil-price---Part-2:-How-value-is-extracted-from-oil-along-its-supply-chains/>.

Chapter 16

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