Chapter 14: East and South Asia -...

14C h a p t e r

500 B.C.–A.D. 1400

East andSouth Asia

> Movement The Mongols ofcentral Asia conquer China andparts of Europe. Section 1

> Uniformity A centralizedgovernment, religion, and a com-mon language maintain China’scultural continuity. Section 2

> Cultural Diffusion The civiliza-tions of Southeast Asia reflect theinfluences of India and China.Section 3

> Innovation Japan and Korea produce innovations from a blendof Chinese and local traditions.Section 4

SThetoryteller

In China, in the year A.D. 1200, a lone student sat behind

a desk in a room furnished only with a lamp, some paper, a

writing brush, and an inkstone. He labored over a grueling

government exam designed to test his knowledge of Confucian

texts. He worried because examiners could fail a person for even

a single misquotation. If he passed, he would be one of the Song

emperor’s officials. If he failed, he would have to hawk cheap

goods in the streets.

Civil service examinations helped ancient China to

maintain a consistent government no matter which dynasty was

in power. Later, the neighboring countries of Korea and Japan

adopted these civil service examinations as well as other aspects

of Chinese culture.

How did the civilizations of East and South Asia influence each other and the rest of the world?

Historical Significance

340

Chapter Themes

Chapter 14 East and South Asia 341

Consult an atlas and create a map ofEast Asia. As you read the chapter, place10 to 20 key events on your map in thecountries or areas where they occurred.Include the dates of these events.

Your History Journal

A partial view of the summer palace constructed underEmperor Ch’ien Lung. Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, FranceHistory

Visualizing

Chapter Overview

Visit the World History: The Human ExperienceWeb site at worldhistory.ea.glencoe.comand click on Chapter 14—Chapter Overviewto preview the chapter.

http://www.glencoe.com/sec/socialstudies/worldhistory/whthetea2003/content.php4/605/1

From the A.D. 1000s to the A.D. 1400s,invaders from the steppe of central Asiaconquered territories in eastern Asia, the

Middle East, and eastern Europe. Originallynomads, the invaders settled in many of the con-quered areas. They adapted to the local cultures,advanced trade, and encouraged the exchange ofgoods and ideas.

The Steppe PeoplesAt the beginning of the A.D. 1000s, large num-

bers of nomadic groups roamed the steppe of cen-tral Asia. Loosely organized into clans, or groupsbased on family ties, they depended for their liveli-hood on the grazing of animals. To protect theirpastures and provide for a growing population,they organized under powerful chiefs. The chiefsformed cavalry units of warriors armed with bowsand arrows. The nomadic peoples became a mili-tary threat to neighboring territories that were moreculturally developed. They carried out a series ofinvasions that transformed the cultures of easternAsia, the Middle East, and eastern Europe.

The Seljuk TurksThe first people of the steppes to engage in con-

quest were the Turks. Around A.D. 800, weakAbbasid rulers centered in Baghdad hired Turkishwarriors to fight in their armies. As a result, theTurks became powerful and soon controlled theAbbasid government. Later, about A.D. 1000, agroup of Muslim Turks called the Seljuk Turksmoved from central Asia into the Middle East.There they formed settlements and restored theSunni caliphate. The Seljuks also gained control ofthe main trade routes between eastern Asia, theMiddle East, and Europe. They benefited from thistrade and used their wealth to build an empire.

342 Chapter 14 East and South Asia

> Terms to Defineclan, yurt, yasa, khan

> People to Meetthe Seljuk Turks, the Mongols, GenghisKhan, Batu, Helagu, Timur Lenk (Tamerlane)

> Places to LocateMongolia

The caravan halted for the night. Chaghatai,the leader, before retiring posted a sign and fas-tened bells around the animals’ necks. Maffeo, ayoung foreigner, wondered at these precautions.Chaghatai explained that strange things may hap-pen in the Desert of Lop. “When a man is ridingby night through this desert and something hap-pens to make him … lose touch with his compan-ions ... he hears spirits talking.… Often thesevoices make him stray from the path.… For thisreason bands of travellers make a point of keepingvery close together.… And round the necks of all

their beasts they fastenlittle bells, so that by lis-tening to the sound theymay prevent them fromstraying from the path.”

—adapted from TheTravels of Marco Polo,Marco Polo, translatedby Ronald Latham, 1958

S e c t i o n 1

Central Asia

SThetoryteller

Porcelain figure on camel

Read to Find Out Main Idea The Mongols acquired theworld’s largest land empire.

Seljuk warriors also invaded the plains andhighlands of Asia Minor. There they defeated theByzantines at the Battle of Manzikert in A.D. 1071.The Byzantine emperor Alexius I Comnenus fearedthe loss of Byzantine territory to the Seljuks andappealed to the pope and the monarchs of westernEurope for aid. About 20 years later, the Seljuk con-quest of Palestine led to Pope Urban II’s calling ofthe First Crusade.

Though the Seljuks were skilled warriors, theywere unable to develop a well-organized govern-ment to rule their territories. Seljuk rulers lackedstrong traditions of government administration andhad difficulties holding the empire together. Localofficials ignored the central government and actedlike independent rulers. They began to fight each other for control of land. Weakened by internalupheavals, the Seljuks became prey to newnomadic invaders from central Asia.

The MongolsDuring the late A.D. 1100s, the Mongols

became the dominant nomadic group in centralAsia. Their homeland was Mongolia, a region offorests and steppe northwest of China. In this wildand isolated area, they wandered from pasture topasture with their herds of sheep, horses, and yaks,or long-haired oxen. Because of their nomadic life,the Mongols lived in movable tents called yurts.Their principal foods were meat and mare’s milk.In a few fertile areas, Mongol farmers establishedsmall communities. There women raised grainswhile men herded animals.

Genghis KhanLike other nomads, the Mongols at first were

divided into clans. They were expert fighters onhorseback, using bow and arrow. About A.D. 1206


ASIA

PERSIA

ARABIA

Armenia

SouthernSong

Empire

Xi Xia EmpireJin

Empire

Turkestan

INDIABURMA

THAILANDVIETNAM

JAPANManchuria

KOREA

SIBERIA

GOBI(Desert)

MONGOLIA

CHINA

EUROPE

AFRICA

Constantinople

Samarkand

Cambaluc(Beijing)

AgraDelhi

Baghdad

Karakorum

Land controlled by the Mongols, A.D. 1200s

Azimuthal Equal-Area Projection

0 500

500

1,000 mi.

0 1,000 km

N

E

S

W

ArabianSea

PACIFIC

OCEAN

AralSea

Bayof

Bengal

Black Sea Caspian

Sea

Red

Sea

PersianGulf

TigrisR

iver

EuphratesRiver

Dan

ubeR

iver

Ob River

Indu

sRi

ver

Ganges River

Chang Jia

ngHuang

He

Mekong River

Lena

Rive

r

Yenisey

River

Amur Ri ver

60°N

50°N

0°

10°N

20°N

30°N

40°N

60°E 70°E 80°E30°E20°E10°E 40°E 50°E 90°E 100°E 110°E 120°E 130°E 140°E 150°E

Mongol Empire at Its Height

Genghis Khans empire extended nearly 5,000 miles from Europe to the Pacific.Region How did Mongol rule foster trade with the Middle East and Europe?Map

Study

a Mongol leader named Temujin (teh•MOO•juhn)organized the scattered clans under one govern-ment. He brought together Mongol laws in a newcode known as the yasa. Under Temujin’s guid-ance, an assembly of tribal chiefs met for the firsttime to plan military campaigns.

Temujin’s greatest achievement was in militaryaffairs. He organized the Mongol armies into disci-plined cavalry units. These units were then placedunder the command of officers chosen for their abil-ities and not for their family ties. These changes madethe Mongols the most skilled fighting force in theworld at that time. As a result of his efforts, Temujinwas recognized as khan, or absolute ruler. Nowcalled Genghis Khan (JEHN•guhs KAHN), or “uni-versal ruler,” Temujin set out to create a large empire.

Mongol ConquestsThe Mongol armies under Genghis Khan first

conquered the other steppe peoples, most of whomwere Turks. These victories brought tribute moneyto the Mongol state as well as new recruits for theMongol armies. By A.D. 1211 the Mongols werestrong enough to attack major civilizations. In thatyear, 100,000 Mongol horsemen invaded China.While fighting against the Chinese, the Mongolslearned Chinese techniques of siege warfare. Using

gunpowder, storming ladders, and battering rams,they won significant victories against their oppo-nents. In spite of Genghis Khan’s death in A.D.1227, the Mongols continued their advance. By A.D.1279 all of China’s territory was in their hands, anda Mongol dynasty ruled the entire country.

Under Ogadai (OH•guh•DY) Khan, the otherMongol forces moved westward. During the A.D.1230s and A.D. 1240s, a Mongol army led by thecommander Batu (bah•TOO) conquered East Slaviclands and then crossed the Carpathian Mountainsinto eastern and central Europe. Upon hearing ofOgadai’s death, Batu’s army returned to Russia.There they awaited the selection of a new khan.Meanwhile, Ogadai’s widow ruled the Mongols.

During the same period, other Mongols invad-ed the Middle East. Using terror to subdue theregion, the Mongols destroyed cities and killedmany people. In A.D. 1258 the commander Helagu(heh•lah•GOO) captured Baghdad, the old Abbasidcapital, and enslaved its inhabitants. The destruc-tion of Baghdad represented a major setback toIslamic civilization. However, the Mongol advancewas finally halted by the Mamluks, a Muslim mili-tary group that ruled Egypt.

The Mongol EmpireThe Mongols created the largest land empire in

history. Their territories extended from China to thefrontiers of western Europe. Many of the greattrade routes between Europe and Asia passed


Some people in Mongolia still live in yurts, circular domed tentsof skins or felt stretched over a lattice frame. Why did ancient

Mongols choose this kind of housing?

HistoryVisualizing

through Mongol lands. During the A.D. 1200sMongol rule brought peace to the region. Thisadvanced the growth of trade and encouraged clos-er cultural contacts between East and West.

The Mongols respected the highly advancedculture of conquered groups and learned fromthem. In China, Mongol rulers gradually adoptedChinese ideas and practices. In Persia and centralAsia, Mongol settlers converted to Islam and inter-married with the local Turkish population. Turkishbecame the principal language of the region. TheMongols of Russia, however, kept their traditionalcustoms and lived apart from the Slavs. They set-tled in the empty steppe region north of theCaspian Sea. From there, they controlled the Slavicprincipalities located in the northern forests.

The unity of the Mongol Empire did not lastlong. All Mongols gave allegiance to the khan inMongolia, but local rulers became increasingly self-reliant. By the end of the A.D. 1200s, Mongol terri-tories in Russia, central Asia, Persia, and China hadeach developed into independent domains.

Timur LenkAbout 100 years later, another powerful

nomadic force emerged from central Asia. In theA.D. 1390s a Turkish-Mongol chief named TimurLenk (in English, Tamerlane) rose to power in theregion. He began as leader of a small nomadic tribeand extended his rule through numerous wars withneighboring tribes.

A devout Muslim, Timur hoped to spreadIslam to new areas. Claiming descent from GenghisKhan, Timur united the Turkish-Mongols by con-quest and eventually extended their rule over muchof the Middle East.

Although Timur was ruthless, the people underhis rule created important centers of civilization incentral Asia. The most influential city in the region


Main Idea1. Use a chart like the one below

to show how the Mongolsacquired the world’s largestland empire.

Recall2. Define clan, yurt, yasa, khan.3. Identify the Seljuk Turks, the

Mongols, Genghis Khan, Batu,Helagu, Timur Lenk.

Critical Thinking4. Synthesizing Information

What factors led the steppe

peoples to expand their territo-ries and to create empires?

Understanding Themes5. Movement How did the

Mongol conquests contributeto the spread of culture andideas throughout Asia andparts of Europe?

Timur Lenk, or Tamerlane, devotedmuch of his life to conquest.

What city was the center of his empire?

HistoryVisualizing

was Samarkand. A wealthy trading and craft center,it became known for its beautifully decoratedmosques and tombs.

In A.D. 1402 Timur and his armies swept intoAsia Minor, defeating another Turkish group—theOttomans—at Ankara. However, Timur’s effort togain territory in Asia Minor never succeeded. InA.D. 1405 Timur died and was buried at Samarkand.The huge empire that he had created soon col-lapsed. The Ottomans were then able to regain theirlost lands and began the building of their state.

SECTION 1 ASSESSMENT

Causes Effect

World’s LargestLand Empire

For more than 350 years after the collapseof the Han dynasty in A.D. 220, Chinesekingdoms and invaders from the north

rivaled each other for control of China. Then in A.D.589, a northern official named Yang Jian (YAHNGJYEN) united China by conquering both the northand the south. Yang Jian took the title Emperor Wenand founded the Sui (SWAY) dynasty. EmperorWen renewed many of the goals and traditions thathad been accepted during the reign of the Handynasty. He organized public works projects suchas the rebuilding of the former Han capital city atChangan (CHONG•ON), the repair of the GreatWall, and the construction of a Grand Canal to linknorthern and southern China. However, to accom-plish these projects Emperor Wen used crews offorced laborers, which made him quite unpopularwith the peasants.

The Tang DynastyIn A.D. 618 peasant uprisings against the Sui

dynasty enabled a rebellious lord named Li Yuan(LEE YOO•AHN) to take control of the country andproclaim himself emperor. He established the Tang(TONG) dynasty, which lasted from A.D. 618 to A.D.907. Under the Tang, the Chinese Empire expandedits borders to include new territories.

Government and SocietyThe military genius behind the early Tang

expansion was a son of Li Yuan who took the nameTai Cong (TIE TSOONG). Not only was Tai Cong awarrior, but he was also a shrewd administrator. Byrestoring a strong central government in China, hemaintained control of his enormous empire whilecontinuing to expand it.

To obtain a position in the Tang government,candidates had to pass civil service examinations.Under Tang rule, these tests measured the degree to which candidates had mastered Confucian


> Terms to Definemeritocracy, mandarin

> People to MeetTai Cong, Empress Wu, Xuanzang, DuoFu, Li Bo, Zhao Kuangyin, Kublai Khan,Marco Polo

> Places to LocateChangan, Hangzhou

Thoughtfully, Gui Xi considered the civil ser-vice examination. He was to select a single line ofpoetry and, using his finest calligraphy, write it ona silk scroll. Then he must create a painting linkedto the chosen text, filling the scroll. To pass thisvital test a man needed to be able to read, drawingconclusions and inferences. He also needed todemonstrate proficiency in the brush arts, a disci-

pline requiring many years tomaster. Gui Xi recollected thesteps essential to writing andpainting. One must first findthe spirit, rhythm, and thought,then one could seek to controlthe scenery, brush, and ink. Forgood work to result, mental andphysical aspects must balance.

—adapted from Record of Brush Methods: Essay onLandscape Painting, Ching Hao,reprinted in Varieties of VisualExperience, 1991

S e c t i o n 2

China

SThetoryteller

Chinese calligraphy

Read to Find Out Main Idea The Tang, Song, and Yuandynasties made significant achievements.

principles. According to Confucianism, an individ-ual was expected to obey the emperor just as a sonwas expected to obey his father.

Because almost any male could take theseexaminations, the Chinese government claimedthat it was a meritocracy—a system in which peo-ple are chosen and promoted for their talents andperformance. But in practice it did not meet thatideal. Few boys from poor families could afford topay tutors to help them prepare for the exams. Mostcould not spare the time away from their labor tostudy on their own.

Nevertheless, some peasants benefited fromthe Tang dynasty’s rule. The Tang government gaveland to farmers and enforced the peace that enabledthem to till their land. In the Chang Jiang (YangtzeRiver) region, farmers were able to experiment withnew strains of rice and better methods for growingit—both of which led to greater crop yields. Withmore food available, the Chinese populationincreased as well.

Foreign InfluencesTang rulers also devoted resources to the con-

struction of roads and waterways. These routesmade travel within China and to neighboring coun-tries much easier. New and improved routes helpedgovernment officials to perform their duties. Theyalso enabled Chinese merchants to increase tradewith people from Japan, India, and the Middle East.

Chinese luxury goods, such as silk and pottery,passed through central Asia along the Silk Road.Beginning in central China, traders’ camel caravanstraveled north to the Great Wall and then headedwest, crossing into central Asia just north of theTibetan plateau. Some traveled as far west as Syria.These caravans brought Chinese goods and ideas toother cultures and returned with foreign productsand new ideas as well. The Buddhist, Christian,and Islamic religions came to China by way of theSilk Road. During the Tang dynasty, Buddhismespecially became very popular in China.

As trade increased the wealth of the empire, theTang capital at Changan grew into the largest cityin the world. Dazzling tales attracted merchantsand scholars from countries throughout Asia to thiscity of 2 million people. Visitors to Changan spokeof wide, tree-shaded avenues and two vast marketsquares where merchants sold goods from Asia andthe Middle East. They said that acrobats, jugglers,and dancers performed in the streets and thatwealthy Chinese—including women—played thePersian games of chess and polo.

The ArtsIn A.D. 649 Gaozong (GOW•DZOONG) suc-

ceeded Tai Cong as emperor of China. ButGaozong’s wife, Empress Wu, actually ruled theempire. She expanded the bureaucracy andstrengthened China’s military forces.


Four Travelers on Horseback, porcelain figures from the Tang dynastyChinese potters discovered how to make porcelain in the A.D. 800s

by firing pieces at very high temperatures. What constructions helped merchantstrade fine Chinese wares with other countries?

Art&History

In A.D. 712 Empress Wu’s grandson, Xuanzang(SEE•WAHN•DZONG), became emperor of China.Because he welcomed artists to his splendid court,the arts flourished during his reign. Tang artisansmade porcelain, a fine translucent pottery thatbecame known in the West as “china.”

Two of China’s greatest poets, Duo Fu (DWAFOO) and Li Bo (LEE BWAW), produced theirworks in Xuanzang’s court. Scholars compiledencyclopedias, dictionaries, and official histories ofChina. Writers popularized stories about ghosts,crime, and love. And while European monks werestill slowly and laboriously copying texts by hand,Chinese Buddhist monks invented the more effi-cient technique of block printing. They carved thetext of a page into a block of wood, then inked thewood and pressed a piece of paper onto it.

Tang DeclineFor a time the cultural splendor of Xuanzang’s

court masked its military weakness. However, theTang ruler’s vulnerability to attack was revealed inA.D. 755, when Turkish armies in central Asia suc-cessfully revolted against China. They cut offChina’s trade routes to the Middle East, and theyput an end to the thriving exchange of goods andideas along the Silk Road. Border wars with theTibetans and rebellions in famine-strickenprovinces plagued the Tang from A.D. 766 on. InA.D. 907 the Tang dynasty finally fell.

The Song DynastyFrom A.D. 907 to 960, China was ruled by mili-

tary dynasties. Then a military general named ZhaoKuangyin (JOW KWONG•YIN) seized the throneand established the Song (SOONG) dynasty.

Song emperors kept peace with a group ofMongols in the north, the Khitan, by paying themgenerously in silver. But in A.D. 1127 the Jurchen, a

nomadic people, captured the Song capital ofKaifeng (KIE•FUHNG). The Song rulers set up their royal court in the southern city of Hangzhou (HONG•JOH).

Cultural ContributionsSong scholars, resentful of foreign influences,

produced an official state philosophy called neo-Confucianism. This philosophy combined Confucianvalues with elements of Buddhism and Daoism.

Song rulers also more firmly entrenched the civilservice system that the Tang had resurrected. Theymade determining one’s knowledge of Confuciancurriculum the main focus of these tests. The scholarswho had passed the tests eventually formed awealthy elite group, called mandarins by Westerners.

Rich and PoorDuring the Song dynasty, China experienced

unprecedented economic growth, partly becauseSong rulers used tax revenues to fund several pub-lic-works projects that benefited the economy. Forexample, they used these revenues to fund the dig-ging of irrigation ditches and canals, which in turnhelped farmers increase their crop yields.

The introduction of new crops from SoutheastAsia, such as tea and a faster-growing rice plant, fur-ther boosted China’s farming economy. The newcrops also led to an increase in China’s trade withIndia and Southeast Asia. With farming, trade, andcommerce all thriving, urban centers prospered.

The urban wealthy lived in spacious homesand enjoyed going to teahouses, restaurants, andluxurious bathhouses. The capital of the dynasty,Hangzhou, grew to nearly 1 million residents.

Of course, the country still had many urbanpoor who lived in flimsy houses and hawked cheapgoods, worked as manual laborers, begged, or stole.

Song Arts and SciencesSong achievements in the arts and sciences were

many. The cuisine which people recognize today asdistinctively Chinese originated during the Songdynasty. Experts regard Song porcelain as the bestever made. Landscape painting reached its peakduring Song rule. Song inventors perfected the com-pass, and they also produced gunpowder. Bamboo-tube rocket launchers charged with gunpowdermade the Song army a powerful fighting force.

China’s enemies, however, eventually obtainedthe secrets of Song military technology. Thus, usingthe Song Empire’s own technology against it, theMongols were able to completely capture northernChina in A.D. 1234 and bring about the fall of theSong dynasty in southern China in A.D. 1279.


PastaAlmost everyone associatesnoodles, or pasta, with

Italy. But, according to tradition, the Chinesewere the first to make noodles, and their recipeswere brought to Italy in the A.D. 1200s by thePolos. Some recent historians, however, claim thatpasta actually originated in Persia and from therespread east and west.

This medieval English manuscript shows theChinese emperor Kublai Khan presentinggolden tablets to Marco Polo and his familyto ensure their safe passage back to the West.

In A.D. 1297 Marco Polo wrote an account of a trip heclaimed to have made to China, and his book eventu-ally became popular with the small literate class inEurope. The painter who embellished this manuscripthad never met Marco Polo nor had he ever seen a pic-ture of an Asian. Maybe that’s why the emperor looksEuropean rather than Asian.

The Mongol rulers of China put the country incloser touch with the Middle East and Europe. TheMongolian khans were outsiders who distrusted, and

were distrusted by, their Chinese subjects. The khansturned to outsiders to help them rule, especially afterKublai Khan moved the Chinese capital to Beijing.The Polos (Marco Polo’s father and uncle accompa-nied him to China) were but three of hundreds ofEuropean and Muslim merchants and artisans whomoved in and out of China. But Marco Polo becamefamous, both in his time and in ours, because hewrote a book about his adventures. The Polos mayhave brought Chinese noodles back to Europe, andother European and Muslim travelers broughtChinese inventions such as gunpowder and the com-pass back to the West. This transfer of technology hada major impact on the history of Europe. �

Kublai Khan and Marco Polo�

PICTURING HISTORY

The

Bod

leia

n Li

bra

ry, O

xfor

d, M

s. B

odl.

264,

fol.2

19R


The Yuan DynastyDuring the A.D. 1200s, the Mongols overthrew

the Jurchen and Song rulers. They established theYuan (YOO•AHN), or Mongol, dynasty and becamethe first conquerors to rule most of the country.

Kublai KhanThe first great Mongol emperor of China was

Kublai Khan (KOO•BLUH KAHN). A grandson ofGenghis Khan, Kublai ruled from A.D. 1260 to A.D.1294. Kublai Khan extended Mongol rule beyondChina’s borders. He conquered Korea and part ofSoutheast Asia. He twice tried to invade Japan,using Chinese and Korean ships, but failed becausethe Mongols were not skilled in naval warfare.

Although Kublai complied with some Chinesetraditions to better control the Chinese, he tried tomaintain Mongol culture. Government documentswere written in Mongolian, then translated intoChinese. The highest positions in the emperor’scourt were given to Mongols or foreigners.

The most famous of these foreigners may havebeen a Venetian named Marco Polo. Polo claimedto have arrived in China about A.D. 1271 and tohave stayed 17 years, traveling through Mongol ter-ritory on the Khan’s missions. Whether true or not,Polo’s tales of the splendor of Chinese civilizationastounded Europeans.

Mongol Peace and DeclineTravel throughout China greatly improved

because the Mongols enforced a relatively stableorder. Merchants could safely travel the roads builtby the Mongols. Mongol rule thus fostered tradeand connections with Europe.

Through contact with the Middle East, Russia,and Europe, the Chinese obtained enslaved peopleas well as products such as glass, hides, clothes, silver, cotton, and carpets. In return, Europeansgot exotic products such as silk, porcelain, and tea.

After Kublai Khan died in A.D. 1294, a series ofweak successors took over the throne. The Chinese,still resentful of foreign rule, began to stage rebel-lions against these rulers. Finally, in A.D. 1368, ayoung Buddhist monk named Zhu Yuanzhang(JOO YOO•AHN•JAHNG) led an army against thecapital and overthrew the Yuan dynasty.



to identify the achievements ofthe Tang, Song, and Yuandynasties.

Recall2. Define meritocracy, mandarin.3. Identify Tai Cong, Empress

Wu, Xuanzang, Duo Fu, Li Bo,Zhao Kuangyin, Kublai Khan,Marco Polo.

Critical Thinking4. Evaluating Information Do

you think the Tang and Song

systems of government weretrue meritocracies? Give rea-sons for your answer.

Understanding Themes5. Uniformity What methods

did the rulers of the Tang,Song, and Yuan dynasties useto unite the territories ofChina?

��Tang dynasty, A.D. 618–907

Song dynasty, A.D. 960–1126

CHINA

MONGOLIA

TIBET

KOREA

Changan Nanjing

N

E

SW


0 500

500

1,000 mi.

0 1,000 km

80°E 100°E 120°E

40°N

30°N

50°N

ChinaSea

Cha

ng Jiang

HuangH

e

MapStudy

China A.D. 618–1126

The Song dynasty governed a much smaller territory than did theTang–yet neither dynasty expanded

very far to the southwest. Human/Environment Interaction What physical barriers prevented expansion in that direction?


Student Web Activity 14

Visit the World History: The Human Experience Web site at worldhistory.ea.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 14—Student Web Activities for an activityrelating to the Mongols.

Tang Song Yuan

http://www.glencoe.com/qe/qe47.php?&st=605&pt=2&bk=18


Although China was the most cultur-ally diverse and influential society inAsia from about A.D. 220 until A.D.

1400, other Asian civilizations were creating dis-tinct and influential cultures of their own at thesame time. Southeast Asian cultures were amongthese new societies.

Crossroads of AsiaSouth of China and east of India is the region

known as Southeast Asia. Southeast Asia includesthe present-day countries of Myanmar (Burma),Thailand, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Malaysia,Singapore, Brunei, Indonesia, and the Philippines.Located in the tropics, many of these countries havefertile soils, warm climates, and abundant rainfall.Geographically, Southeast Asia is divided intomainland and maritime Southeast Asia. The latterincludes more than 10,000 islands of the Philippineand Indonesian archipelagos, or chains of islands.

During the A.D. 100s, an exchange of goods andideas began between India and Southeast Asia. Thisexchange led Southeast Asia to adopt many ele-ments of Indian culture. For instance, at that time,traveling Indian traders and scholars introduced toSoutheast Asia the Sanskrit language and the reli-gions of Hinduism and Buddhism. Indian epicssuch as the Ramayana were interwoven withSoutheast Asian stories and legends. Indian archi-tecture, law codes, and political ideas also deeplyinfluenced the cultures of the region. As contactwith India increased, Indian culture graduallyspread throughout Southeast Asia.

Southeast Asians nevertheless retained manyof their own traditions. They continued to performthe art of shadow puppetry, to make intricately pat-terned cloth called batik, and to play their ownunique instruments and music. They also believedin animism, the idea that spirits inhabit living andnonliving things.

> Terms to Definearchipelago, animism

> People to Meetthe Khmer, Suryavarman II, Trung Trak,Trung Nhi, Ngo Quyen, Ramkhamhaeng

> Places to LocateAngkor Wat, Pagan, Sukhothai, Ayutthaya, Melaka

The situation was a general’s nightmare, T’uSui thought despairingly. His lord, the Chineseemperor, was determined to subjugate the land ofYueh [Vietnam]. T’u Sui had gladly accepted thecommand of five hundred thousand men of abilityto complete the task. However, when he attackedthe Yueh fled into the mountains and forestswhere it was impossible to fight them or even tofind them. Gradually, the troops grew weary oftheir duties. The Yueh would then attack, inflict-ing great losses upon the powerful Chinese army.

—from Huai NanTzu, reprinted inAncient Vietnam,Keith W. Taylor

S e c t i o n 3

Southeast Asia

SThetoryteller

Mountains ofVietnam

Read to Find Out Main Idea Southeast Asians were influ-enced by the cultures of China and India.

The KhmerIn A.D. 802 the Khmer (kuh•MEHR) people of

the mainland Southeast Asian country of Cambodiaestablished a great Hindu-Buddhist empire with itscapital at Angkor. The Khmer Empire reached itsheight during the A.D. 1100s, when it conqueredmuch of the land that now includes Laos, Thailand,and Vietnam.

The empire’s wealth came primarily from its riceproduction. Elaborate hydraulic engineering projectsenabled the Khmer to irrigate and produce threecrops of rice a year. With the wealth from this bounti-ful harvest, Khmer rulers subsidized mammoth con-struction projects. Adapting Indian building tech-niques to create their own distinctive architecture, theKhmer built hundreds of temples that glorifiedHindu and Buddhist religious figures. They also con-structed roads, reservoirs, irrigation canals, harbors,and hospitals. Khmer rulers were known for thesplendor of their court. Borrowing from the Indianidea of kingship, Khmer rulers presented themselves

as incarnations of the Hindu gods or as futureBuddhas, which served to enhance their power. Theybedecked themselves in elaborate finery and filledtheir palaces with ornate thrones and beautiful fur-nishings. A Chinese traveler named Zhou Dakuan(JOH DAH•KWON) described the splendor of aKhmer king in dress and manner:

His crown of gold is high and pointed likethose on the heads of the mighty gods.When he does not wear his crown, hewreathes his chignon [hair gathered in abun] in garlands of sweet-scented jasmine.His neck is hung with ropes of huge pearls(they weigh almost three pounds); hiswrists and ankles are loaded with braceletsand on his fingers are rings of gold setwith cats’ eyes. He goes barefoot—thesoles of his feet, like the palms of hishands, are rouged with a red stuff. Whenhe appears in public he carries the GoldenSword.

of theof the

Angkor WatAngkor Wat (meaning “temple of the capital”)

was built in the A.D. 1100s by the Khmer rulerSuryavarman II. Suryavarman believed he was theincarnation of the Hindu god Vishnu.

352

A bas–relief of theBayon depicts a battlebetween the Khmer andthe Chams.

The temple complex at Angkor Wat is encir-cled by a three-mile moat. The temples andmonuments within the complex honored thegod-king Suryavarman II and impressed visitorswith their size and detailed ornamentation.

Seen through a doorway,the pavilion and the centralsanctuary reveal a five-headedNaga serpent.

During the A.D. 1100s, under the rule of KingSuryavarman (soor•yah•VAHR•mahn) II, theKhmer kingdom reached the height of its power.Having expanded Cambodia by conquest toinclude parts of areas known today as Laos,Vietnam, and Thailand, the king decided to glorifyboth the Hindu god Vishnu and himself. Heordered the construction of Angkor Wat, a templecomplex covering nearly a square mile. Carvingsdepicting the Hindu gods cover the walls ofAngkor Wat, and, at the center of the complex, thesanctuary stands 130 feet (40 m) high. Angkor Watalso was used as an astronomical observatory.

The Khmer king poured so much of theempire’s wealth into building Angkor Wat, howev-er, that he severely weakened the kingdom. Thisexcess, along with rebellions against Khmer ruleand infighting between members of the royal fami-ly, further crippled the empire. In A.D. 1431 theThai, a neighboring Southeast Asian people, cap-tured the capital city of Angkor, bringing an end toKhmer rule there.

Vietnam East of Cambodia and south of China lies the

area of present-day Vietnam. Because of Vietnam’sproximity to China and because the Chinese domi-nated Vietnam for more than 1,000 years, Vietnam’sculture in some ways came to resemble that ofChina.

The Vietnamese absorbed elements of Chinesebelief systems such as Confucianism, Daoism, andBuddhism. The Vietnamese also adopted Chineseforms of writing and government. Just as in China,Vietnamese officials were selected through civil ser-vice exams based on Confucian principles.

The Vietnamese retained many of their owntraditions, however. They adopted Chinese reli-gions and beliefs, but they continued to believe inanimism. The Vietnamese built a dinh, or spirithouse, in each village. This tiny house served as thehome for the guardian spirit of a village. TheVietnamese wore their hair long and tattooed theirskin. They wrote and spoke their own Vietnamese

REFLECTING ON THE TIMES

1. What values of the Khmer are reflected inthese images?

2. How did Suryavarman attempt to impressupon visitors that he was an incarnation ofVishnu?

353

A stone bas–relief of elephantand gods helps tell the story of theancient Khmer civilization.

language, although in writing it they used Chinese characters. Even though the Chinese controlled Vietnam almost continuously fromabout 200 B.C. to A.D. 939, the Vietnamese fought hard to retain—and then to regain—theirindependence.

The Viets [Vietnamese] were very difficultto defeat. They did not come out to fight,but hid in their familiar mountains andused the jungle like a weapon. As a result,neither side could win.... The Viets wouldraid suddenly, rob and get away fast, sothat just as our army obtained its suppliesfrom the home base, the Viets obtainedtheirs from our army.

—Chinese general, c. 200 B.C.

In A.D. 39 two Vietnamese sisters, Trung Trakand Trung Nhi, clad in armor and riding atop ele-phants, led a successful revolt against the Chinese.For two years Vietnam was independent of China.Then the Chinese returned in greater numbers anddefeated the Vietnamese. Rather than surrender tothe Chinese, the Trung sisters are said to havedrowned themselves in a river.

During the confusion after the overthrow of theTang dynasty, the Vietnamese took advantage ofChina’s disunity to revolt again. The Chinese sent afleet of warships to Vietnam to try to subdue therebels. In A.D. 938, however, under the leadershipof Ngo Quyen (noo chu•YEHN), the Vietnamesedefeated the warships in the Battle of the BachDang River. Although Emperor Tai Cong counteredthis defeat by launching an invasion of Vietnam,the Vietnamese date their independence from thebattle, because Tai Cong’s invasion failed.

After the Song dynasty gained control of China,the Song emperor threatened the Vietnamese withinvasion. To keep peace with China, the Vietnameseagreed to send tribute—gifts—to the Chinese emper-or. In return, China agreed not to invade Vietnam.From then on, the Vietnamese ruler called himselfemperor at home, but in his messages to the Chinesecourt he referred to himself merely as a king.

MyanmarThe westernmost area of mainland Southeast

Asia today includes the country of Myanmar(Burma). The first peoples to extensively settle mostof present-day Myanmar were the Mons and theTibeto-Burmans. From 200 B.C. to A.D. 100, these twogroups gradually occupied different parts of thecountry. The Mons established villages in southernBurma, while the Tibeto-Burmans lived along theIrrawaddy (IHR•uh•WAH•dee) River in the northernpart of the country. Although they developed theirown traditions, the Mons and the Tibeto-Burmansaccepted Buddhism and other aspects of Indian culture from visiting South Asian sailors and traders.

During the A.D. 500s, the Tibeto-Burmansbecame the dominant group and pushed the Monssouthward. In A.D. 849 they set up a capital citycalled Pagan (pah•GAHN), which eventuallybecame a center of Buddhist learning and culture.By the A.D. 1200s, skilled architects had trans-formed Pagan from a small settlement into a city ofelaborate Buddhist temples and monasteries.

During the A.D. 1200s, the Mongol armies ofKublai Khan captured Pagan and ended its glory.To escape Mongol rule, many Burmans moved into



0 300

300

600 mi.

0 600 km

N

E

S

W

Hokkaido

Honshu

JAPAN

Nara

ShikokuKyushu

KOREA

C H I N A

INDIA

(PHILIPPINES)INDOCHINAPENINSULA

MALAYPENINSULA

(INDONESIA)

Borobudur

JAVA

Silla

SUM

ATRA

Irra

wad

dyR. M

ekong River

Red River

PACIFICOCEAN

Strait ofMalacca

INDIANOCEAN

50°N

30°N

10°N

0°

100°E 120°E 140°E

MapStudy

Much of Southeast Asia (shown in purple on the map) lies in the tropics. Region What conditions in this

region have made farming an important part of the economy?

Western Pacific Rim A.D. 700

the southern part of Myanmar. Therethey founded fortified towns alongthe rivers between their ruined capitaland the Andaman Sea. AlthoughBurman culture was preserved, a unit-ed kingdom did not arise again inMyanmar until the A.D. 1500s.

The ThaiMore than four out of every five

people who live in the SoutheastAsian country of Thailand todaybelong to the ethnic group called Thai.They are descendants of people whobegan migrating south from Chinaabout A.D. 700. About A.D. 1238 theThai established their first kingdom atSukhothai (SOO•kah•TY) in thenorth-central part of the country.

SukhothaiThe Sukhothai kingdom lasted

only about 100 years, but it was known for its wiseleaders. The kingdom’s greatest monarch, KingRamkhamhaeng (rahm•KAHM•hong), ruled fromA.D. 1275 to A.D. 1317. He made Sukhothai into a cen-ter of learning and the arts. During Ramkhamhaeng’sreign, the Thai developed an alphabet and writingsystem based on the Khmer script. Artisans fromChina taught the making of porcelain, and Buddhistmonks from South Asia won most of the Thai peopleto Buddhism. Beautiful Buddhist temples, with manylevels of roofs, rose gracefully above the skyline ofSukhothai. Even during Ramkhamhaeng’s lifetime,the Thai saw his reign as a golden age. A stone pillarerected in A.D. 1292 and still standing has the follow-ing words engraved on it:

This Sukhothai is good. In the water thereare fish. In the fields there is rice. The kingdoes not levy a [tax] on his people.… Whowants to trade in elephants, trades. Whowants to trade in horses, trades. Who wantsto trade in gold and silver, trades.…

AyutthayaIn A.D. 1350 a prince named Ramathibodi

(rah•MAH•thee•BOH•dee) overthrew the lastSukhothai ruler and founded a new kingdomknown as Ayutthaya (ah•YOO•thy•yuh). He set uphis capital south of Sukhothai and up the ChaoPhraya River (chow PRY•uh) from where Bangkok,the present Thai capital, is today.

The Ayutthaya kingdom lasted for about 400years, with a succession of 33 kings. At its height, itheld control over large areas of Southeast Asia,including parts of Myanmar and the MalayPeninsula. Like Sukhothai, Ayutthaya was animportant center of Buddhist learning and culture.Economically prosperous, Ayutthaya carried ontrade in teakwood, salt, spices, and hides withChina and neighboring Asian kingdoms.

Seafaring KingdomsMany kingdoms in early Southeast Asia devel-

oped around strategic ports. The Indonesianislands became a crossroads in the expanding inter-national trade that stretched from the ArabianPeninsula to China. Merchants of many lands—Arabs, Chinese, Indians, and Persians—tradedsuch products as porcelain, textiles, and silk forSoutheast Asian spices and valuable woods.

The Srivijaya (SHREE•vih•JAY•uh) Empirearose on the islands of Java and Sumatra in present-day Indonesia. Lasting from about A.D. 600 to A.D.1100, the Srivijaya Empire was one of the region’s


Wat Mahathat, an ancient Buddhisttemple now restored, is in Sukhothai

Historic Park, which was opened to the public in1980. What was accomplished in Sukhothai’s golden age?

HistoryVisualizing

great seafaring powers. It controlled shipping alongthe Strait of Malacca that separates Sumatra fromthe Malay Peninsula. By the end of the A.D. 1100s,Srivijaya was reduced to a small kingdom, and theMajapahit (mah•jah•PAH•heet) kingdom began todominate the Indonesian islands.

From the A.D. 400s to the A.D. 1400s, Buddhismand Hinduism were the dominant religious influ-ences that affected maritime Southeast Asian life.During the early A.D. 1200s Muslim traders fromthe Arabian Peninsula and India brought Islam tothe peoples of the Malay Peninsula and Indonesia.

The first major center of Islam in Southeast Asiawas Melaka, a port kingdom on the southwesterncoast of the Malay Peninsula.

From Melaka, Islam spread throughout theIndonesian islands. The only island to remain out-side of Muslim influence was Bali, which has keptits Hindu religion and culture to the present day.

During the A.D. 1500s, a number of Muslimtrading kingdoms competed for control of theIndonesian islands. European explorers, beginningwith the Portuguese in A.D. 1511, gradually woncontrol by setting local rulers against each other.


Main Idea1. Use a diagram like the one

below to show specific addi-tions to Southeast Asian cul-ture introduced from China and India.

Recall2. Define archipelago, animism.3. Identify the Khmer,

Suryavarman II, Trung Trak,Trung Nhi, Ngo Quyen,Ramkhamhaeng.

Critical Thinking4. Synthesizing Information

How might Buddhism or

Confucianism complement abelief in animism?

Understanding Themes5. Cultural Diffusion Some

aspects of Southeast Asian civilization were affected byChina and India. What aspectsof life in Southeast Asia did not change? Explain.

The Hindu temple of Pura Ulun Danau on Lake Bratan in theCentral Mountains of Bali has a typical thatched roof. How is

Bali’s religious heritage different from that of the rest of Indonesia?

HistoryVisualizing

China India

Southeast Asia



Have you heard statements such as “Onlytall people play basketball well” or “Dogsmake better pets than cats”? Do you con-

sider the validity of such statements?

Learning the SkillThese statements, called generalizations, are

broad statements about a topic. To be valid, ageneralization must be based on accurate infor-mation. Let’s examine the generalization “Onlytall people play basketball well.” Is this accurate?We can find many examples of tall basketballplayers. However, there are also many shorterplayers who excel at this sport.

In this case, we began with a generalizationand looked for facts to support or disprove it. Inother cases, you will make a generalization froma group of facts about a topic. To make a validgeneralization, first collect facts—not opinions—relevant to the topic.

Suppose that you want to make a general-ization about the relative danger of air and automobile travel. First, you would collect accident statistics involving airplanes and cars.Then classify the information into categories andlook for relationships. For example, you mightput the airplane and automobile statistics in sep-arate categories. Finally, make a generalizationthat is consistent with most of the information.

Practicing the SkillRead the passage about literature in the Tang

dynasty and answer the questions that follow.

Xuanzang welcomed artists to his splen-did court.… Two of China’s greatestpoets, Duo Fu and Li Bo, produced theirworks in Xuanzang’s court. Scholarscompiled encyclopedias, dictionaries,and official histories of China. Writerspopularized stories about ghosts, crime,and love. And while European monks

were still slowly and laboriously copy-ing texts by hand, Chinese Buddhistmonks invented the more efficient tech-nique of block printing.

1. What facts about literature in the Tangdynasty are presented?

2. Organize these facts into categories.3. How does the invention of

block printing relate tothe other facts?

4. What generalization canyou make about litera-ture during the Tangdynasty?

Applying theSkill

Review theinformation in thechapter about reli-gion in China,Cambodia, Vietnam,Korea, and Japan. Writea generalization aboutreligion in East andSoutheast Asia. Then supportyour generalization with at least five facts. Use your generalization and facts as the basis for an oral presentation to the class.

For More PracticeTurn to the Skill Practice in the Chapter

Assessment on page 371 for more practice inmaking generalizations.

Making Generalizations

Critical ThinkingCritical Thinking

Chinese pouring vessel

The Glencoe SkillbuilderInteractive Workbook, Level 2provides instruction and practice in key social studies skills.

Like the nations of Southeast Asia, Koreaand Japan adopted elements of Chineseculture. But also like these other

nations, they retained their own rich traditions.

KoreaA glance at Korea on the map on page 354 will

reveal why a Korean proverb describes the countryas “a shrimp between whales.” Korea forms a penin-sula on the east coast of Asia, extending south towardthe western tip of Japan. Thus, it acts as a bridgebetween its two neighbors, China and Japan.

Early HistoryBy legend, the Koreans claim descent from

Tangun, the son of a bear and a god who suppos-edly founded the first Korean kingdom 5,000 yearsago. Historians believe that the first Korean peoplewere immigrants from northern Asia. These settlerslived in villages, grew rice, and made tools andother implements of bronze. They were animistswho practiced shamanism, a belief that good andevil spirits inhabit both living and nonliving things.Shamans, or priests, interceded between the spiritworld and humans.

In 109 B.C. China first invaded Korea, puttingKorea under the control of the Han dynasty. From109 B.C. until the fall of the Han dynasty in A.D. 220,Korea was dominated by China. But after the fall ofthe Han dynasty, Koreans regained control of theirpeninsula and, by A.D. 313, eventually formed threekingdoms—Silla, Paekche (pah•EHK•chee), andKoguryo. During the Three Kingdoms period, fromA.D. 313 to A.D. 668, the Koreans adopted many elements of Chinese culture. Among these wereConfucianism, Buddhism, calligraphy, and ideasabout government.

Koreans also used Chinese knowledge of artsand sciences to make their own unique creations.For example, in the A.D. 300s, Koguryo artists


> Terms to Defineshamanism, shogun, shogunate, samurai,daimyo, Bushido

> People to MeetAmaterasu, Sejong, Yi-Sun-shin, Jimmu,Prince Shotoku, Lady Shikibu Murasaki,Yoritomo Minamoto

> Places to LocateHeian (Kyoto)

Zeami Motokiyo was adamant as he lecturedhis students. “Actors are not thoughtless mimicsincapable of intellectualism or philosophy. We seekexcellence, as do courtiers and men of letters.”Motokiyo had been developing a new form of drama,the Noh play, that had uplifting stories and morallessons, aspects that appealed to the educated upperclasses. “Actors must always bear in mind the cor-rect balance between mental and physical actions.

An actor, using his intelligence,will make his presentation

seem beautiful.” Motokiyowanted his actors to thinkas well as to rehearse.

—adapted from Sources of Japanese Tradition,Ryusaku Tsunoda,reprinted in Sources ofWorld History, Volume 1,edited by Mark A.Kishlansky, 1994

S e c t i o n 4

Korea and Japan

SThetoryteller

Noh theatermask

Read to Find Out Main Idea The Koreans and the Japaneseaccepted some aspects of China’s culture.

produced mammoth cave art murals. In Silla,Queen Sondok built an astronomical observatorythat still stands today and is the oldest observatoryin Asia.

In A.D. 668 the kingdom of Silla conquered allof Korea, ushering in a period of peace, prosperity,and creativity. Korean potters produced superbporcelain decorated with flower designs. Koreansalso created a unique mask dance that expressedsentiments of shamanism and Buddhism, whichhad been adopted as the state religion in A.D. 528.Over a 16-year period, Korean scholars compiledthe Tripitaka Koreana, the largest collection ofBuddhist scriptures in the world today. TheTripitaka has 81,258 large wooden printing plates.

The Yi DynastyIn A.D. 1392 a dynasty called the Yi came to

power in Korea. The Yi called their kingdomChoson and built Hanyang—today the city ofSeoul—as their capital. They opened schools toteach Chinese classics to civil service candidatesand made neo-Confucianism the state doctrine.

The adoption of Korean neo-Confucianismdeeply affected people’s roles and relationships.According to Korean Confucian doctrine, the eldestson in each family was bound by duty to serve hisparents until their death. Korean women—who hadbeen accorded high status under shamanism andBuddhism—were given much lower standingunder Korean Confucianism. In fact, women fromthe higher ranks of society had to stay indoors untilnightfall, when a great bell signaled the closing ofthe city gates. Even then, to go out they had toobtain permission from their husbands.

One of the greatest Yi rulers, King Sejong, hadtwo significant accomplishments. He orderedbronze instruments to be used in measuring rain.As a result, Korea now has the oldest record of rain-fall in the world. He and his advisers made agreater contribution by creating simplified writingto spread literacy. Together they devised hangul, analphabet that uses 14 consonants and 10 vowels torepresent Korean sounds. Although scholars con-tinued to write with Chinese characters after theinvention of hangul, writers began using hangul totranscribe folk tales and popular literature.

Although the Japanese tried to capture Korea inA.D. 1592, the Yi dynasty managed to successfullyrebuff the Japanese invaders, mainly because of aninvention created by Korea’s Admiral Yi-Sun-shin.The admiral’s ironclad warships, or “turtle ships,”devastated the Japanese fleet. The Koreans won thewar. However, in the years that followed, theyincreasingly avoided contact with the outside world

and isolated themselves so totally that Korea becameknown as the Hermit Kingdom.

JapanJust 110 miles (204 km) east of Korea lies the

Japanese archipelago. As the map on page 354shows, Japan consists of four large islands—Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, and Hokkaido—andmany smaller ones.


Shown here is the world’s oldestastronomical observatory in Asia. It

was built at Silla, Korea, from 365 stones. How muchterritory did the kingdom of Silla hold by A.D. 668?

HistoryVisualizing

Island GeographyBecause of its island geography, Japanese cul-

ture formed mostly in isolation from mainlandAsian cultures, except for that of China. Althoughthe Japanese borrowed from Chinese civilization,their customs and traditions were different fromthose of most other Asian peoples.

The geography of these islands influenced theformation of Japanese culture in other ways as well.Because much of the land is mountainous—lessthan 20 percent of it is suitable for farming—theJapanese learned to get most of their food from thesea. They also learned to rely on the sea for protec-tion from invaders—being a natural barrier to inva-sion from the mainland—and yet to regard it as aroute of transport between the islands. The physicalbeauty of the land inspired deep reverence fornature in works by many Japanese painters andpoets. Because these islands are located in an areawhere earthquakes, typhoons, floods, and volcaniceruptions are frequent, the Japanese long ago created a myth that helped to explain the stormyweather there.

Creation MythAn ancient Japanese creation myth is the oldest

explanation for the origins of Japan, its turbulentweather, and its first emperor. According to themyth, brother and sister gods Izanagi and Izanamidipped a spear into the churning sea. When they

pulled it out, the drops of brine that fell upon thewater’s surface became the islands of Japan. Thetwo gods then created the sun goddess Amaterasu,and because they loved her best of all their chil-dren, they sent her to heaven to rule over the world.Next they created Tsuki-yumi, the moon god, andSusanowo, the storm god, to be her companions.

Amaterasu gave life to everything around her.But Susanowo, who had a fierce temper, ruined hissister’s rice crop and so frightened her that she hidin a cave. Without her in heaven, the world becamedark. The other gods placed a jewel and a mirror ona tree outside the cave to coax Amaterasu back out-side. When she came out and told them why shehad hidden, the other gods banished Susanowo tothe earth.

According to the myth, Susanowo’s descen-dants were the first inhabitants of Japan.Amaterasu sent her grandson, Ninigi, to governthese descendants on the island of Honshu. So thatall would acknowledge his divine power, she sentwith him her mirror, her jewel, and a great sword.According to legend, Ninigi’s grandson, Jimmu,conquered the rest of Susanowo’s descendants in660 B.C., becoming the first emperor of Japan.

By tradition, each successive emperor hasreceived Amaterasu’s three gifts: a mirror, a jewel,and a sword. Also by tradition, each emperor—until Hirohito—has claimed to be Amaterasu’sdescendant. In 1945, after the Japanese defeat in


Mount Fujiand Lake

Ashi at Hakone, Japan. Howdid the physical beauty of the landaffect Japanese art?

HistoryVisualizing

CON

NECTIONS

CO

NNECTIONS

Study a painting with a samuraitheme. What values are expressed inthe painting? You might want to viewthe films The Hidden Fortress and StarWars. In what ways do you think thesefilms reflect samurai values? In whatways do you think they do not?

World War II, Emperor Hirohito announced that hedid not possess divine status.

Early InhabitantsAmong the first people to inhabit the Japanese

islands were hunter-gatherers who came there fromthe mainland more than 10,000 years ago. Thesepeople had developed the technology to make pot-tery but not to make bronze or iron. When Koreansand others from mainland Asia invaded Japan dur-ing the 200s B.C. and 100s B.C., they were easily ableto defeat the early inhabitants by using iron andbronze weapons.

The invaders introduced the islanders to agri-cultural methods, such as how to grow rice inflooded paddies. Heavy summer rains in Japanmade it the ideal place to grow rice, which soonbecame Japan’s most important crop.

Between A.D. 200 and A.D. 300, another influxof mainlanders came to Japan. According to schol-ars, these armor-clad warriors who fought onhorseback were probably the ancestors of the aris-tocratic warriors and imperial family of Japanreferred to in the creation myth.

In early Japan, though, even before there wasan emperor or an imperial family, separate clans

ruled their own regions. Clan members practiced aform of animism called Shinto, meaning “the wayof the gods.” Each clan included a group of familiesdescended from a common ancestor, often said tohave been an animal or a god. The clan worshipedthis ancestor as its special kami, or spirit.Practitioners of Shinto believed that kami dwelledwithin people, animals, and even nonliving objectssuch as rocks and streams. To honor this kami—andthe kami of their ancestors—they held festivals andrituals. Often these ceremonies were conducted bythe chief of the clan, who acted as both militaryleader and priest.

The Yamato ClanBy about A.D. 400, the military skill and pres-

tige of the Yamato clan, which claimed descentfrom Amaterasu, enabled it to extend a loose ruleover most of Japan. Although other clans continuedto rule their own lands, they owed their loyalty tothe Yamato chief. In effect, he became the emperor.

Initially, the emperor had a great deal of politi-cal power. By the A.D. mid-500s, however, theemperor had become more of a ceremonial figurewho carried out religious rituals. The real politicalpower was held by the members of the Soga


Samurai Arts

In the A.D. 1100s therise of military rule in Japanbrought in a new style ofart. Supported by daimyoand samurai, artists createdpaintings highlighting theskill and bravery of soldiers.These works show warriorsin richly patterned clothing,riding magnificent horsesand wielding long swords.The expressions of the rid-ers and their horses oftenconvey wild—but con-trolled—emotions.

Today in Japan thesamurai artistic tradition is

most prominent in movies and television.Many popular Japanese films are samuraitales set in feudal times and filled withaction and adventure. Akira Kurosawa, oneof the world’s renowned directors, has madea number of samurai movies. His film TheHidden Fortress—about a brave general wholeads an endangered princess to safety—helped inspire American director GeorgeLucas to create the epic film Star Wars.

Kiyomatsu, asamurai hero

family. The emperors kept their position as heads ofJapan because people believed that only they couldintercede with the gods. But the Soga family con-trolled the country.

Chinese InfluencesIn A.D. 552 a Korean king sent a statue of the

Buddha and some Buddhist texts to the Japanesecourt. The king wrote, “This religion is the mostexcellent of all teachings” and suggested that theemperor make Buddhism the national religion.Buddhism had come to Korea from China, and itsintroduction to Japan made the Japanese open toChinese culture. This curiosity about China wasespecially strong among Japan’s nobles and scholars.

Through a kind of cultural exchange programthat lasted four centuries, the Japanese learnedmuch from the Chinese. Not only did they learnabout the teachings of the Buddha, they alsolearned a great deal about Chinese art, medicine,astronomy, and philosophy. They incorporatedmuch of this knowledge into Japanese culture. Forinstance, the Japanese adopted the Chinese charac-ters for writing to create their own writing system.

Prince Shotoku was responsible for much ofthis cultural exchange. When he became the lead-ing court official in A.D. 593, he instituted programsthat encouraged further learning from Chinese civ-ilization. He ordered the construction of Buddhistmonasteries and temples and sent officials and stu-dents to China to study. When Shotoku heard aboutthe Chinese Confucian ideas of government, hewrote a constitution for Japan in which he set forth

general principles that explained how governmentofficials should act.

After Shotoku’s death, the Fujiwara familyseized power in the name of the emperor and began to urge him to pattern the government moreclosely on that of China. China had a strong centralgovernment at that time.

In A.D. 646 government officials instituted theTaika reforms, or “Great Change.” These reformsproclaimed that all the land was the property of theemperor rather than clan leaders. Clan leaderscould oversee the peasants working the land, butthey could no longer assign them land or collecttaxes from them. Instead, government officialswere to allocate plots to peasants and collect part oftheir harvest in taxes for the emperor.

In modeling their government on China, how-ever, the Japanese did not always adopt Chineseways. For example, civil service examinations werenever accepted; instead officials gained their poststhrough family ties. Also, even after the Taikareforms, much of Japan remained under the controlof regional clan leaders.

The Nara PeriodGreater government centralization did not take

place until A.D. 710, when Japan built its first per-manent capital at Nara. A smaller version ofChina’s Changan, Nara had an imperial palace,broad streets, large public squares, rows ofChinese-style homes, and Buddhist temples.

With the completion of the colossal TodaijiTemple at Nara in A.D. 752, Buddhist fervor in Japan reached its peak. Buddhism, however, did not replace Shinto, for each religion met different needs. Shinto linked the Japanese tonature and their homeland. Buddhism promisedspiritual rewards to the good. Therefore, peoplepracticed both.

During the Nara period, the Japanese also pro-duced their first written literature. Scribes wrotehistories of ancient Japan that combined the cre-ation myths with actual events. Other writers com-piled collections of Japanese poems.

The Heian PeriodIn A.D. 794 the Japanese established a new cap-

ital in Heian, later called Kyoto. For more than 1,000years, this city remained the capital of Japan.

A century after the city was founded, Japanstopped sending cultural missions to China. In theperiod that followed, a small group of about 3,000Japanese aristocrats, calling themselves “dwellersamong the clouds,” created Heian culture.

The focus of Heian court life was the pursuit of


Ellora

INDIA

Temple of Kailasa

India, A.D. 760Emperor Krishna of the Rashtrakuta dynasty ordered construction of the Kailasa Temple at Ellora. The temple, completed in A.D. 760, was cut from a single outcropping of rock. It was 165 feet (50 m) long and 96 feet (29 m) high. Kailasa was dedicated to the Hindu god Siva. Its elaborate carvings featured Hindu gods and mythological figures in various poses.

AROUND THE

beauty. It pervaded all of life’s activities, fromwrapping presents to mixing perfumes and colors.People devoted hours each day to writing letters inthe form of poems. Calligraphy was as important asthe poem itself, for a person’s handwriting wastaken to be an indication of his or her character.People were even said to fall in love upon seeingeach other’s handwriting.

During the Heian period, women were the cre-ators of Japan’s first great prose literature. AboutA.D. 1010 Lady Shikibu Murasaki wrote The Tale ofGenji, which some believe to be the world’s firstnovel. The novelist chronicles the life and loves of afictional prince named Genji. Filled with poemsabout the beauty of nature, The Tale of Genji quicklybecame very popular.

The Heian aristocrats were so deeply involvedin their search for beauty, however, that theyneglected tasks of government. Order began break-ing down in the provinces. Warlike provincial lead-ers started running their estates as independent territories, ignoring the emperor’s officials andrefusing to pay taxes. Thus the Heian aristocratseventually lost control of the empire completely.

The Way of the WarriorAs Heian power faded, two powerful court fami-

lies, the Taira and the Minamoto, struggled for con-trol. The families fought a decisive battle in A.D. 1185in which the Taira were defeated. To Yoritomo

Minamoto, head of the Minamoto family, the emper-or then gave the title shogun, or “general,” and dele-gated to him most of the real political and militarypower. While the emperor remained with his court inthe capital of Kyoto carrying on ritual tasks, Yoritomoand his soldiers ran a shogunate, or military govern-ment, from Kamakura near present-day Tokyo.

The shogunate proved to be quite strong. Eventhough Kublai Khan tried twice to invade Japan—once in A.D. 1274 and again in A.D. 1281—he didnot succeed. On the first occasion, Japanese war-riors and the threat of a storm forced the Mongolsto withdraw. On the second occasion, 150,000Mongol warriors came by ship, but a typhoon aroseand destroyed the fleet. The Japanese thought ofthe storm as the kamikaze, or “divine wind,” andtook it to be confirmation that their islands wereindeed sacred.

In A.D. 1336 the Ashikaga family gained controlof the shogunate. But the family failed to get controlof regional warriors. Japan soon broke into individ-ual warring states, leaving the shogun and theemperor as mere figureheads.

The powerful landowner-warriors in the coun-tryside were called samurai. The most powerfulsamurai became daimyo (DY•mee•OH), or lords.Like the medieval knights of feudal Europe whopledged their loyalty to lords, samurai pledgedtheir loyalty and military service to their daimyo.There were many samurai and many daimyo. Poor


The Lady Fujitsubo Watching Prince Genji Departing in the Moonlight byA. Hiroshige and U. Toyokuni, A.D. 1853. What was a major theme of

the Heian novel, The Tale of Genji?

Art&History

rice farmers paid high taxes for the right to farm adaimyo’s lands. In return, that daimyo providedthe farmers with protection. The system in whichlarge landholders give protection to people inexchange for their services is called feudalism.Japanese feudalism was similar to European feu-dalism as described in Chapter 12.

The samurai fought on horseback with bows,arrows, and steel swords. They dressed in loose-fit-ting armor. The samurai followed a strict code ofhonor called Bushido, meaning “the way of thewarrior.” Bushido stressed bravery, self-discipline,and loyalty. It demanded that the samurai enduresuffering and defend his honor at all costs. If asamurai was dishonored or defeated, he wasexpected to commit suicide.

Japanese women too could be warriors. Thispassage from The Tale of the Heike describes a femaleMinamoto samurai:

Tomoe had long black hair and a fair com-plexion, and her face was very lovely;moreover she was a fearless rider whomneither the fiercest horse nor the roughestground could dismay, and so dexterouslydid she handle sword and bow that shewas a match for a thousand warriors andfit to meet either god or devil. Many times

had she … won matchless renown inencounters with the bravest captains, andso in this last fight, when all the othershad been slain or had fled, among the lastseven there rode Tomoe.

—The Tale of the Heike, A.D. 1200s

Growth of a Merchant ClassDespite the political turmoil during its feudal

period, Japan developed economically at this time.Workshops on daimyo estates produced arms,armor, and iron tools. Each region began to special-ize in goods such as pottery, paper, textiles, and lac-querware. Trade increased between regions.

The increasing trade led to the growth of townsaround the castles of the daimyos. Merchants andartisans formed guilds to promote their interests—just as they did in medieval Europe. These guilds,called za in Japan, benefited their members in manyways. A za might pay a fee to exempt its membersfrom paying tolls for shipping their goods. Over along period of time, this exemption would save themembers quite a bit of money.

Japanese merchants began to trade withChinese and Korean merchants. Chinese coppercoins became the chief means of exchange. TheJapanese exported raw materials such as lumber,pearls, and gold, as well as finished goods such asswords and painted fans. The Japanese importeditems such as medicines, books, and pictures.

Religion and the ArtsBy the A.D. 1200s Buddhism had spread from

the nobles to the common people. The openingwords of The Tale of the Heike describe the Buddhistsentiments that were prevalent in Japan during itsfeudal period:

In the sound of the bell of the Gion Templeechoes the impermanence of all things. Thepale hue of the flowers of the teak treeshow the truth that they who prosper mustfall. The proud do not last long, but vanishlike a spring-night’s dream. And the mightyones too will perish in the end, like dustbefore the wind.

During Japan’s feudal age, Buddhist teachingswere simplified and gave rise to many religiousgroups. The new varieties of Buddhism all taughtabout a personal afterlife in paradise. The way toparadise, they stated, was through simple trust inthe Buddha. With salvation so easily available, theinfluence of priests, monks, and nuns declined. For


Friends mourn the death of theBuddha in this Japanese painting.

How was Buddhism introduced to Japan?

HistoryVisualizing

the first time, the common people began to play animportant role in Buddhist life. With widespreadsupport, Japanese Buddhist groups linked religionwith patriotism. Some believed that JapaneseBuddhism was the only true Buddhism and thatJapan was the center of the universe.

While the common people turned to new formsof Buddhism, the samurai followed a form ofBuddhism called Zen. The Japanese scholar Eisaihad brought Zen to Japan from China late in theA.D. 1100s. Zen taught that the individual had tolive in harmony with nature and that this harmonycould be achieved through a deep religious under-standing called enlightenment. The followers ofZen rejected book learning and logical thought,embracing instead bodily discipline and medita-tion. They believed that by meditation a studentcould free his mind and arrive at enlightenment.

Zen was particularly useful for warriors becauseit taught them to act instinctively, and thinking was ahindrance to action. Samurai could improve skillssuch as archery by freeing their minds from distrac-tions to better concentrate on the object or target.

Zen also perfected art forms and rituals such asikebana, or flower arranging, meditation gardens,and the tea ceremony. Ikebana grew out of the reli-gious custom of placing flowers before images ofthe Buddha. The Zen practice of meditation gaverise to meditation gardens, consisting of carefullyplaced rocks surrounded by neatly raked sand.

Meditation also sparked the tea ceremony, an ele-gant, studied ritual for serving tea. One tea mastersaid of the ceremony that it was intended to “cleansethe senses … so that the mind itself is cleansed fromdefilements.” These and other arts and rituals derivedfrom Buddhism are still popular in Japan today.



to identify elements of Chineseculture accepted by Korea andJapan.

Recall2. Define shamanism, shogun,

shogunate, samurai, daimyo.3. Identify Sejong, Yi-Sun-shin,

Amaterasu, Jimmu, Shinto,Prince Shotoku, Taika reforms,Lady Shikibu Murasaki, Yoritomo Minamoto, Bushido.

Critical Thinking4. Evaluating Information

Would you prefer to follow the

ideals of the Heian court or thesamurai code of Bushido? Why?What effects do you think eachviewpoint might have had onthe people of Japan?

Understanding Themes5. Innovation Identify one

Japanese or Korean inventionfrom this period of Asian history, and explain why it was innovative.

Zen Buddhist monks sit in a meditation garden at Ryoanji Temple in Kyoto, Japan. To a Zen Buddhist, what is the purpose of meditation?History

Visualizing


Chinese Culture in. . .Japan Korea


Li Bo was born in A.D.701 in western China.People began praising

his beautiful poems even before hereached adulthood. Throughout his lifehe traveled extensively in China, amaz-ing people with his ability to composeinsightful, touching poems. He usuallywrote about the world around him, thepeople he met, and the emotions he felt.By the time of his death in A.D. 762, hewas regarded as one of China’s greatestpoets, a distinction he still holds today.

Four Poemsby Li Bo

from

In the following poem, Li Bo comments on anexperience everyone faces at some time: part-

ing with a close companion.

Taking Leave of a FriendBlue mountains to the north of the walls,White river winding about them;Here we must make separationAnd go out through a thousand miles

of dead grass.

Mind like a floating wide cloud,Sunset like the parting of old acquaintancesWho bow over their clasped hands at a distance.Our horses neigh to each other

as we are departing.

The following poem is a favorite of manyChinese citizens who have left their home-

land and settled in the United States or elsewhere.

On a Quiet NightI saw the moonlight before my couch,And wondered if it were not the frost

on the ground.I raised my head and looked out on the

mountain moon;I bowed my head and thought of my

far-off home.


Li Bo used extensive symbolism in his writing. In the following poem,he compares life to a traveler on a journey.

Hard Is the JourneyGold vessels of fine wines,

thousands a gallon,Jade dishes of rare meats,

costing more thousands,

I lay my chopsticks down,no more can banquet,

And draw my sword and starewildly about me:

Ice bars my way to crossthe Yellow River,

Snows from dark skies to climbthe T’ai-hang Mountains!

At peace I drop a hookinto a brooklet,

At once I’m in a boatbut sailing sunward …

(Hard is the Journey,Hard is the Journey,So many turnings,And now where am I?)

So when a breeze breaks waves,bringing fair weather,

I set a cloud for sails,cross the blue oceans!

Dawn Over Elixir Terrace depictsa tranquil river scene. How do

the river and mountains present obstacles to the traveler in the poem?

HistoryVisualizing


Since Li Bo spent much of his time traveling, he was oftenseparated from his family. He wrote and sent the following

poem to his children.

Letter to His Two Small Children Stayingin Eastern Lu at Wen Yang Village Under Turtle MountainHere in Wu Land mulberry leaves are green,Silkworms in Wu have now had three sleeps:

My family, left in Eastern Lu,Oh, to sow now Turtle-shaded fields,Do the Spring things I can never join,Sailing Yangtse always on my own—

Let the South Wind blow you back my heart, Fly and land it in the Tavern courtWhere, to the East, there are sprays and leavesOf one peach-tree, sweeping the blue mist;

Landscape of theFour Seasons by

Shen Shih-Ch’ung. In whatseason did Li Bo write the abovepoem?

Art&History


This is the tree I myself put in When I left you, nearly three years past;A peach-tree now, level with the eaves,And I sailing cannot yet turn home!

Pretty daughter, P’ing-yang is your name,Breaking blossom, there beside my tree,Breaking blossom, you cannot see meAnd your tears flow like the running stream;

And little son, Po-ch’in you are called,Your big sister’s shoulder you must reachWhen you come there underneath my peach,Oh, to pat and pet you too, my child!

I dreamt like this till my wits went wild, By such yearning daily burned within;So tore some silk, wrote this distant pangFrom me to you living at Wen Yang.…

1. In “On a Quiet Night,” why is the personunhappy?

2. In “Hard Is the Journey,” what do the goldvessels and jade dishes symbolize?

3. What types of images did Li Bo use in each ofhis poems included here?

4. Supporting an Opinion Which poem doyou like best? Explain why.

RESPONDING TO LITERATURE

This winter scene isa detail from the

Ming dynasty painting Landscape ofthe Four Seasons. How many wintershave passed since the author was athome?

HistoryVisualizing

Reviewing Facts1. History Use a time line like the one below to

identify key events in the rise and fall of theMongol empire.

2. History Identify Tai Cong and name his impor-tant political achievements.

3. Science/Culture List the scientific and artisticaccomplishments that took place during theSong dynasty.

4. History Explain the significance of the Battle ofthe Bach Dang River to the Vietnamese peopleand their country as a whole.

5. History Discuss the importance of the kamikaze,the “divine wind,” in early Japanese history.

6. Culture Describe examples of female leadershipin early East and South Asia.

Critical Thinking1. Apply How did civil service examinations aid

in the development of a strong central govern-ment in China?

2. Analyze Why did China’s economy expandduring Song rule?

3. Synthesize Do you think the strengths ofMongol society would benefit a nation today?Why or why not?

4. Evaluate In what ways did Chinese innovationschange the cultures of Korea and Japan?

Using Key TermsWrite the key term that completes each sentence. Thenwrite a sentence for each term not chosen.

a. yurts g. shogunb. yasa h. shogunatec. daimyo i. archipelagod. meritocracy j. mandarinse. samurai k. clansf. shamanism

1. The Mongol warrior Temujin, later known asGenghis Khan, developed a code of law knownas the ______.

2. The early Koreans practiced _________, a beliefthat priests could intercede between humansand spirits.

3. The Japanese _____________ geographicallyconsists of four large islands and many smallerones.

4. Because of its examination system, the Chinesegovernment claimed that it was a ______, or asystem in which people are chosen and promot-ed for their talents and performance rather thanfor favors.

5. In return for protection, Japanese farmersfarmed the lands of powerful landowner-warriors known as ________.


CHAPTER 14 ASSESSMENT

Choose one country from your map ofEast Asia. Draw that country on a sepa-rate sheet of paper. From the section ofChapter 14 that provides information onyour chosen country, list 5 to 10 impor-tant facts or events beside your map.

Using Your History Journal

A.D. 1100 A.D. 1400

Self-Check Quiz

Visit the World History: The Human ExperienceWeb site at worldhistory.ea.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 14—Self-Check Quiz to prepare for the Chapter Test.

Creating a MultimediaPresentation Search a computerized card catalog orthe Internet to locate information about GenghisKhan. Using multimedia tools, create a presen-tation about the reign of Genghis Khan. Includeinformation about Genghis Khan as a personand as a ruler. Incorporate images from theInternet in your presentation. Cite all electronicresources used for your final project.

Technology Activity

http://www.glencoe.com/qe/qe47.php?&st=605&pt=3&bk=18

Understanding Themes1. Movement The Mongols were able to conquer

a vast territory, but their empire survived for arelatively short time. Provide a hypothesis thatmight explain this situation.

2. Uniformity What elements of Chinese societyremained the same during the Tang, Song, andYuan dynasties? What effect did this stabilityhave on China’s culture?

3. Cultural Diffusion What are some of the simi-larities between Southeast Asian cultures andChinese culture?

4. Innovation Identify one Chinese discovery andexplain some of the ways in which it has beenused by the Chinese and others. Name things inour culture that derive from this innovation.

Geography in History1. Place Refer to the map below. What river

formed a natural border between China and thekingdom of Koguryo?

2. Region How did geography contribute toKorea’s becoming known as the HermitKingdom?


Kungnae

Pyongyang

Kaesong

Kwangju

Kongju

Puyo Kyongju

YellowSea

Sea ofJapan

KAYA STATES(MIMANA)

CHINA

PAEK

CH

E

Yalu

Naktong

Taed

ong

KOGURYO

SILLA

Polyconic Projection

0 50

50

100 mi.

0 100 km

N

E

S

W

Han

Han

tan

40°N

125°E 130°E

35°N

Korea in the Three Kingdoms Period

5. Analyze Japanese gardens show a love fornature and order. How did the geography of theislands influence Japanese arts and gardening?

1. How has Japan’s possession of Heian andsamurai values helped it to become a worldleader in industry today?

2. Confucianism spread to many East andSouth Asian countries. How do Confucianvalues benefit these countries today?

Skill PracticeRead the passage below and answer the questions that follow.

Indian traders and scholars introduced toSoutheast Asia the Sanskrit language andthe religions of Hinduism and Buddhism.Indian epics such as the Ramayana wereinterwoven with Southeast Asian storiesand legends. Indian architecture, lawcodes, and political ideas also deeply influ-enced the cultures of the region.… In A.D.802 the Khmer people of Cambodia estab-lished a great Hindu-Buddhist empire.…Borrowing the Indian idea of kingship,Khmer rulers presented themselves asincarnations of the Hindu gods or asfuture Buddhas.…

1. What facts are presented about India’s influenceon Southeast Asia in general?

2. What generalization can you make based onthese facts?

Japanese garden

CHAPTER 14 ASSESSMENT

Chapter 14: East and South Asia -...

Documents

Transcript of Chapter 14: East and South Asia -...