1400–1800 Emergence of the Modern World -...

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1400–1800 Emergence of the Modern World Chapter 16 Renaissance and Reformation Chapter 17 Expanding Horizons Chapter 18 Empires of Asia Chapter 19 Royal Power and Conflict The Renaissance and Reformation changed European culture and created powerful political alliances. Europeans set out on uncharted seas to explore the world as powerful European monarchs competed for trade, influence, and territory. While the peoples of the Americas struggled against European invaders, civilizations in Asia reached pinnacles of cultural achievement. Every time you use paper money or write a check, you are trusting in a system based on banking that originated during this period. As European trade and commerce increased, merchants turned to bankers for the capital to finance their ventures. Wealthy banking families even made loans to European monarchs. By the 1600s government- chartered banks began to replace family-owned banks. These banks issued banknotes and checks that made trading in heavy coins obsolete. hen Now 398 Unit 4 See pages 506–507 for primary source readings that accompany Unit 4.

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1400–1800

Emergence of theModern World

Chapter 16Renaissance andReformation

Chapter 17Expanding Horizons

Chapter 18Empires of Asia

Chapter 19Royal Power andConflict

The Renaissance and Reformation changed

European culture and created powerful political

alliances. Europeans set out on uncharted seas to explore the world

as powerful European monarchs competed for trade, influence, and

territory. While the peoples of the Americas struggled against

European invaders, civilizations in Asia reached pinnacles of

cultural achievement.

Every time you use paper money or write a check, you are trusting

in a system based on banking that originated during this period. As

European trade and commerce increased, merchants turned to bankers

for the capital to finance their ventures. Wealthy banking families

even made loans to European monarchs. By the 1600s government-

chartered banks began to replace family-owned banks. These banks

issued banknotes and checks that made trading in heavy coins obsolete.

henNow

398

U n i t4

See pages 506–507 forprimary source readingsthat accompany Unit 4.

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399

Galileo’s telescope

During the voyages of theAge of Exploration, Europeanexplorers gained new con-tacts for trade, expansion,and innovation that pro-foundly changed Europeanculture.

To better understandthe history of Europeanexploration, view videodiscChapter 9: Age of Explorationin Turning Points in WorldHistory.

and

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West AfricaTraditional Rhythms

“We are almost a nation of dancers, musicians, and poets,”recalled a West African named Olaudah Equiano. “Every greatevent ... is celebrated ... with songs and music suited to theoccasion.”

Equiano’s words highlighted the importance of music toeveryday life among the varied peoples of West Africa. Heremusicians won fame for the skill with which they played com-plicated rhythms on drums, flutes, whistles, and stringedinstruments. People added the sounds of their voices to arhythm known as a call-and-response pattern. A leader wouldsing out a short piece of music, and people would sing it backto the beat of a drum.

400 Unit 4 Emergence of the Modern World

In the 1400s and 1500s,European ships edged intouncharted waters. These voy-

ages set the stage for one of the greatestcultural exchanges in history, as peoplefrom Europe, Africa, and the Americascame face-to-face for the first time. Oneof the products of this exchange was thebirth of “America music,” a collection ofstyles deeply rooted in West Africa.

SpreadThe

of

The

ofSpread

IdeasIdeasMusic

West AfricaThe Caribbean

North America

African-styledrum

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Unit 4 Emergence of the Modern World 401

LINKING THE IDEAS

1. What are some of the features of WestAfrican music?

2. How did West African music influence musi-cal styles in North America and theCaribbean?

Critical Thinking3. Evaluating Information Which styles of

music that you listen to at least once a weekare influenced by West African musical patterns?

North AmericaNew Musical Forms

The musical heritage of West Africa traveledto the Americas aboard European slave ships. Toendure the pains of slavery, West Africans keptalive musical patterns that reminded them oftheir ancestral homelands. Because most WestAfricans came as laborers, work songs took rootfirst. The rhythmic patterns of these songs setthe pace for repetitious tasks. West Africanlaborers added field hollers—long calls by aworker in which other workers answered back.Outside the fields, enslaved Africans cried outfor freedom in religious folk songs known asspirituals.

Over hundreds of years, these musicalforms came together to create new styles. Theblues grew out of the field songs and spiritualsof slavery. Ragtime echoed the complicatedrhythms of West African music. On these foun-dations grew yet other styles—jazz, rock ’n’ roll,and rap.

The CaribbeanAfro-Caribbean Beats

The sounds of West Africa could be heardwherever large enslaved African populationslived in the Americas. On islands in theCaribbean, the beat of bongos, the conga, thetambour, and other West African drums becamethe soul of Afro-Caribbean music. Added to thedrums were European instruments such as theSpanish guitar and a variety of NativeAmerican instruments such as the marimba(xylophone), maraca, and wooden rhythm stickscalled claves. Out of this blend of influencesemerged a range of styles as diverse as theCaribbean islands themselves—reggae, calypso,salsa, and more.

Steel drums of the Caribbean

Chicago 1955 byBen Shahn

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16C h a p t e r

1400–1600

Renaissanceand Reformation

> Innovation The Renaissance leadsto an artistic and intellectual awak-ening in Europe. Section 1

> Cultural Diffusion Renaissanceideas and artistic styles spread fromItaly to northern Europe. Section 2

> Conflict Martin Luther’s protestsagainst the Catholic Church resultin Protestantism. Section 3

> Cultural Diffusion Protestant religious groups spread reformthrough northern Europe. Section 4

> Reaction The Catholic Churchenacts its own reform, the CatholicReformation. Section 5

SThetoryteller

Isabella d’Este, married in 1490 at the age of 16 to the

Marquis of Mantua, played a vital role in ruling the Italian

city-state of Mantua. A brilliant and well-educated young

woman who loved Latin literature, Isabella gathered a fashion-

able assemblage of artists and statesmen in her sparkling court.

In a room decorated with ornately carved woodwork and paint-

ings that illustrated Greek myths, Isabella entertained her

guests to her own lute recitals and poetry readings. Isabella was

one of the many Italians of her time who rediscovered and repop-

ularized Greek and Roman classics, educating their contempo-

raries to the glories of their classical past after a thousand years

of neglect. The word Renaissance, coming from the French word

meaning “rebirth,” was coined to refer to this rebirth of interest

in classical ideas and culture.

What happened during the Renaissance that changedEuropeans’ outlook on the world? How did the Reformationshape the religious and political life of Europe?

Historical Significance

402

Chapter Themes

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Chapter 16 Renaissance and Reformation 403

Detail of The Court by Andrea Mantegna.Palazzo Ducale, Mantua, ItalyArt&

History

Choose a Renaissance sculptor, archi-tect, or painter mentioned in this chap-ter. Research and write a short report onthe work and influence of this person.

Your History JournalChapter Overview

Visit the World History: The Human ExperienceWeb site at worldhistory.ea.glencoe.comand click on Chapter 16—Chapter Overviewto preview the chapter.

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The Renaissance—the period from about1350 until 1600 during which westernEuropeans experienced a profound cul-

tural awakening—was in many ways a continuationof the Middle Ages, but it also signaled the begin-ning of modern times. The Renaissance caused edu-cated Europeans to develop new attitudes aboutthemselves and the world around them.

The Renaissance began first in the city-states ofItaly. Unlike other areas of Europe, Italy had large-ly avoided the economic crisis of the late MiddleAges. Italian towns remained important centers ofMediterranean trade and boosted their productionof textiles and luxury goods.

More than other Europeans, Italians wereattached to classical traditions. The ruins of ancientRoman buildings, arches, and amphitheaters con-stantly reminded them of their heritage. Moreover,through trade Italian towns remained in close con-tact with the Byzantine Empire, where scholars pre-served the learning of ancient Greece.

HumanismThrough renewed contact with the classics,

Italian scholars improved their understanding ofGreek and Latin, studied old manuscripts, andcopied the classical writing style. This interest inclassical learning, however, was more than just afascination with ancient times. It led to a new intel-lectual movement known as humanism thatfocused on secular, or worldly, themes rather than onthe religious ideas that had concerned medievalthinkers. Humanists—the scholars who promotedhumanism—accepted classical beliefs and wanted touse them to renew their own society. Among the mostimportant beliefs was individualism, an emphasison the dignity and worth of the individual person.

404 Chapter 16 Renaissance and Reformation

> Terms to Definehumanism, secular, individualism, sonnet,doge

> People to MeetNiccolò Machiavelli, Lorenzo de’ Medici,Michelangelo Buonarroti, Leonardo daVinci

> Places to LocateFlorence, Rome, Venice

Michelangelo finished the Sistine Chapel inSeptember 1512. Pope Julius came to see the com-pleted work. One man had covered ten thousandsquare feet with the greatest wall painting inItaly. Michelangelo wrote to his father, “I havefinished the chapel which I have been painting.The Pope is very satisfied.… Your Michelangelo,

sculptor, in Rome.”The artist, tired andin poor health, wenthome to Florence,hoping for rest andrelaxation.

—adapted fromMichelangelo TheMan, Donald LordFinlayson, 1935

S e c t i o n 1

The Italian Renaissance

SThetoryteller

Ancestors of Christ, detail fromthe Sistine Chapel

Read to Find Out Main Idea An array of cultural factorsinspired the Renaissance.

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Another was the idea of human improvement, thatpeople should develop their talents through manyactivities: politics, sports, and the arts.

Education and LiteratureHumanists believed that education could help

people improve themselves. They opened schoolsthat taught the studia humanitas, or humanities—Greek, Latin, history and philosophy, the subjectstaught in ancient times. These schools became sopopular that humanists began to replace the clergyas teachers of the sons of the wealthy.

Humanism also inspired new forms of litera-ture written in the vernacular and focusing on per-sonal feelings. During the 1300s, FrancescoPetrarca, or Petrarch (PEE•TRAHRK), wrote sonnets, or short poems, that expressed his love forLaura, a woman who had died during the BlackDeath. His friend, Giovanni Boccaccio, in the workDecameron, described young people who tell storiesto divert their attention from the plague’s horrors.

As the Renaissance developed, writers alsofocused on the topics of individual ambition andsuccess. During the 1500s, Benvenuto Cellini, agoldsmith and sculptor, glorified his achievementsin one of the first modern autobiographies. In apopular manual, The Book of the Courtier, BaldassareCastiglione (bahl•dahs•SAHR•ray kahs•steel•YOHN•ay) gave advice to men and women on theRenaissance ideal of good behavior. Men were to beskilled in many activities; women were to be grace-ful, attractive, and courteous. The diplomatNiccolò Machiavelli (mak•ee•uh•VEHL•ee)wrote The Prince, a book that realistically analyzedthe politics of Renaissance Italy. Rulers, Machiavellisaid, should be ready to use force and deceit to holdpower. Critics charged that The Prince justifiedimmoral behavior in politics, but Machiavelli’sbook appealed to power-hungry Renaissancerulers. It also influenced the thought and actions oflater political leaders.

ScholarshipHumanist scholars influenced more than just

literature. With their independent thinking, theybegan to challenge long-accepted traditions,assumptions, and institutions. As they made allsorts of unsettling discoveries, it further validatedtheir desire to challenge and question nearly every-thing—even long-standing church traditions. Forexample, in an exciting piece of Renaissance detec-tive work, the scholar Lorenzo Valla determinedthat a document that supposedly provided the legalbasis for the pope’s supremacy over kings wasactually a forgery.

Through their teaching and writing, humanistsreawakened the educated public to classical values.They also encouraged a ferment of new ideas thateventually spread from Italy throughout Europeand reshaped European civilization.

City LifeTown life was stronger in Italy than in other parts

of Europe. As a result, Italians could easily discardfeudalism and other medieval institutions that hadtheir origins in the rural north. Italy did not becomeunified as did France and England. Wealthy andsuccessful, most Italian communes, or communi-ties, resisted the efforts of emperors, kings, andnobles to control them. They became independentcity-states, each of which included a walled urbancenter and the surrounding countryside.

Social GroupsThe Italian city-states fashioned a new social

order in which wealth and ability mattered morethan aristocratic titles and ownership of land.Wealthy merchants and bankers replaced the

Chapter 16 Renaissance and Reformation 405

Corsica

Sardinia

Sicily

Rome

Lambert Conic Conformal Projection

0 200

200

400 mi.

0 400 km Milan

Mantua

Venice

Genoa

Pisa Florence

Naples

N

E

S

W

Milan

Venice

Papal States

Genoa

Florence

Kingdom of the Two Sicilies

Tyrrhenian Sea

Adriatic Sea

Ionian Sea

12°E8°E

40°N

44°N

16°E

Mediterranean

Sea

MapStudy

Renaissance Italy 1400s

Notice the locations of the Italian city-states during the 1400s. Location Which city-state was in

the best position to trade by land as well as bysea with the Byzantine Empire to the east?

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landed nobility as the most powerful social andpolitical group—the upper class. Shopkeepers andartisans ranked below the wealthy merchants,forming a moderately prosperous middle class thatemployed large numbers of poor workers. Most ofthese workers—who were the majority of towndwellers—came to urban areas from the country-side. At the bottom of the social order were thepeasants who worked on the country estates of thewealthy classes.

GovernmentDuring the Renaissance, Italy was not under

one government, but instead consisted of individ-ual city-states, each ruled by wealthy familieswhose fortunes came from commercial trading orbanking. Workers often rebelled against the upperclasses. Their demands for equal rights and lowertaxes, however, were suppressed.

During the 1400s, social conflicts createdupheaval so often that certain city-states felt it nec-essary to turn over all political authority to a single

powerful leader to restore peace. These powerfulpolitical leaders were called signori (seen•YOHR•ee). Some signori ruled as dictators, using violenceto maintain control. Others successfully ensuredpopular loyalty by improving city services, sup-porting the arts, and providing festivals andparades for the lower classes.

While dealing with internal unrest, city-statesalso fought with each other in territorial disputes.But the prosperous merchants and bankers, unlike the nobility they had supplanted, did not want to fight in these battles. Since military ser-vice would interfere with conducting business andtrade, the signori chose to replace citizen-soldiers with hired soldiers known as condottieri(KAHN•duh•TYEHR•ee).

Hiring condottieri made wars very costly. Toavoid this expense, signori began to seek territorialgain through negotiated agreements. To carry outthis policy, they assembled the first modern diplo-matic services. Permanent ambassadors wereappointed to represent their city-states at foreign

of theof the

Art of the Italian Renaissance

The Italian Renaissance produced a hostof great Italian artists and sculptors. Amongthe most notable of these were Michelangelo,Raphael, and Leonardo da Vinci.

Michelangelo created David, agigantic marble sculpture,while at home in Florence between1501 and 1504. A painter, archi-tect, sculptor, and poet, hehas had an unparalleledinfluence on Western art.

406

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courts. The city-states also worked out an agree-ment among all the city-states that no one city-statewould be allowed enough power to threaten theothers. During the 1500s other European statesadopted similar agreements with one another andalso began to practice diplomacy.

Although the Italian city-states had much incommon, each developed its own characteristic life.Three cities in particular played leading roles in theRenaissance: Florence, Rome, and Venice.

FlorenceOriginally a republic, Florence in the 1400s

came under the control of a prominent bankingfamily known as the Medici (MEH•duh•chee).Medici rulers helped to foster the spirit of human-ism among the city-state’s scholars and artists. Withthis spirit alive throughout the city, Florencebecame the birthplace of the Italian Renaissance.

Cosimo de’ Medici gained control of Florencein 1434. He worked to end worker uprisings byintroducing an income tax that placed a heavier

burden on wealthier citizens. He used the tax rev-enues to make city improvements, such as sewersand paved streets, that benefited everyone. Cosimoalso worked to establish peaceful relations betweenthe city and its neighbors.

Cosimo’s grandson Lorenzo de’ Medici ruledFlorence from 1469 to 1492, and he continued poli-cies like those of his grandfather. He used hiswealth to support artists, philosophers, and writersand to sponsor public festivals. As a result of thecity’s prosperity and fame, Lorenzo was known as“the Magnificent.”

During the 1490s Florence’s economic prosper-ity, based mostly on the banking and textile indus-tries, began to decline with increasing competitionfrom English and Flemish cloth makers. Tired of theMedici rule, discontented citizens rallied in supportof a Dominican friar named Girolamo Savonarola(SA•vuh•nuh•ROH•luh). In fiery sermons beforehundreds of people, Savonarola attacked theMedici for promoting ideas that he claimed werecausing the downfall of Florence:

REFLECTING ON THE TIMES

1. What Renaissance values are reflected in thepaintings and sculpture shown in this feature?

2. Why are there many similarities in style andsubject matter among works of the ItalianRenaissance?

407

Raphael painted the School ofAthens for Pope Julius II. WhenRaphael died in Rome on his 37thbirthday, the whole city mourned.His funeral mass was celebrated atthe Vatican.

Leonardo da Vinci painted theMona Lisa during a period of inten-sive study in Florence in 1503. Histalent was also expressed in sculp-ture, architecture, and engineering.

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In the mansions of the great prelates andgreat lords there is no concern save forpoetry and the oratorical art. Go … andsee; [you] shall find them all with booksof the humanities in their hands.… Ariseand come to deliver [your] Church fromthe hands of the devils!

So many people were won over by Savonarolathat the Medici family was forced to turn over therule of Florence to his supporters. On Savonarola’sadvice, the city’s new leaders imposed strict regulations on public behavior. Gambling, swear-ing, and horse racing were banned. Savonarolaurged his listeners to repent of their “worldly”ways. He had crowds make bonfires to burn books,paintings, fancy clothes, and musical instruments.

Savonarola soon aroused a great deal of oppo-sition to his preaching. His criticism of church offi-cials angered the pope. Many people in Florencedisliked his strict ways. In 1498 Savonarola washanged for heresy, and the Medici family returnedto power. By this time, however, Florence’s great-ness had passed.

RomeDuring the 1500s Rome emerged as a leading

Renaissance city. In Rome, the pope and the cardi-nals living in the Vatican made up the wealthiestand most powerful class.

Eager to increase their prestige, Renaissancepopes rebuilt the ancient city. Architects constructedlarge churches and palaces, and artists created mag-nificent paintings and sculptures to decorate thesebuildings. Scholars came from all over Europe tostudy manuscripts and books in the VaticanLibrary.

Renaissance popes often placed political goalsahead of religious duties. In ruling Rome and itssurroundings, they sent ambassadors to otherlands, collected taxes, and fought wars. The mostpolitically minded pope was Alexander VI. Electedpope in 1492, Alexander had bribed the College ofCardinals to vote for him. Once in office, he usedthe wealth of the Church to support his family, theBorgias. He especially encouraged his son Cesare,who raised an army and conquered much of centralItaly.

After Alexander’s death in 1503, his successors,Julius II and later Leo X, promoted artistic projectsto beautify Rome. Their most notable effort was therebuilding of St. Peter’s Basilica, the largest churchin the Christian world.

VeniceAnother Renaissance center was Venice, the

port city on the Adriatic Sea. Venice’s economicpower, enjoyed since the Crusades, was fadingbecause of changing trade routes and Muslim inva-sions in the east. However, the city’s role as a linkbetween Asia and western Europe still drew tradersfrom all over the world. Venetian shipyards alsoturned out huge galleys, and Venetian workshopsproduced high quality glass.

One benefit of Venice’s prosperity was politicalstability. Venice’s republican government washeaded by an elected doge, (DOHJ), or leader. Thedoge officially ran the city, but the wealthiest mer-chants meeting in committee as the Council of Tenheld the real power. This council passed laws, elect-ed the doge, and even had to be consulted shouldthe doge’s son want to marry.

Influenced by Byzantine as well as westernEuropean culture, Venice was known for its artisticachievements. Painters, such as Titian, Tintoretto,and Giorgione, used brilliant oil colors to portrayrural landscapes and classical and religious themes.Venetian architects, such as Sansovino andPalladio, erected buildings in the classical style.

408 Chapter 16 Renaissance and Reformation

Brunelleschi’s sculpture of the sacrificeof Isaac was a contest entry for the east

doors of the Baptistry in Florence. Brunelleschi lost butis remembered for what architectural feat?

Art&History

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Renaissance ArtsWhat were the unique characteristics of

Renaissance art? The humanists’ emphasis on culti-vating individual talent inspired Italian artists toexpress their own values, emotions, and attitudes.No longer content with creating symbolic represen-tations of their subjects, artists made their subjectsas lifelike and captivating as possible. Althoughmuch of the art was still devoted to religious sub-jects, it had more secular, or worldly, overtones.Interest in ancient Greece and Rome moved artiststo include classical mythology as well as biblicalthemes in their works.

To make their creations lifelike and captivating,artists experimented with new techniques. For exam-ple, they learned to create a sense of perspective,which gave their paintings depth. They studiedanatomy so they could portray human figures moreaccurately and naturally. Artists also learned todepict subtleties of gesture and expression to conveyhuman emotions. Much of their work consisted offrescoes, or paintings done on damp plaster.

The public in Renaissance Italy appreciatedworks of art and hailed great artists as geniuses.Nobles and townspeople used art to decoratehomes as well as churches. They lavishly rewardedartists and gave them a prominent place in society.

ArchitectureDuring the Middle Ages, cathedral architects

had pointed soaring arches and spires heavenwardfor the glory of God. During the Renaissance, how-ever, Italian architects returned to the classical style.They substituted domes and columns from classicalGreek and Roman architecture for the medievalarches and spires. They sought both comfort andbeauty in their buildings, adorning them withtapestries, paintings, statues, finely made furniture,and glass windows. Unlike the anonymous archi-tects of the Middle Ages, Renaissance architectstook credit for their fine buildings.

The most famous Italian Renaissance architectwas Filippo Brunelleschi (BROO•nuhl•EHS•kee), bestknown for the dome he designed and completed in1436 for the Cathedral of Florence. No one beforehad been able to design a dome large or strongenough to cover the cathedral without collapsingfrom its own weight. Brunelleschi’s Roman-inspired design was considered to be the greatestengineering feat of the time.

SculptureRenaissance sculpture reflected a return to clas-

sical ideals. The free-standing statues of nude figures sculpted in bronze or marble during theRenaissance resembled ancient Greek and Romansculptures much more than they did medieval sculp-tures. Human figures in medieval sculptures hadusually been portrayed in a stiff, stylized manner.

Some of the best-known Renaissance sculp-tors—Donatello, Michelangelo, and Ghiberti(gee•BEHR•tee)—came from Florence. There theMedicis opened a school for sculptors. Donatellowas the first sculptor since ancient times to cast alarge, free-standing nude statue. Although thesculptor Michelangelo Buonarroti later went toRome to sculpt works for the pope, he learned hiscraft in Florence. Florentine sculptor LorenzoGhiberti took 21 years to create 10 biblical scenes onbronze doors for Florence’s cathedral baptistry.

PaintingItalian Renaissance painters departed from the

flat, symbolic style of medieval painting to begin amore realistic style. This change first appeared inthe early 1300s when the Florentine artist-sculptor-architect Giotto (jee•AH•toh) effectively capturedhuman emotions in a series of frescoes portrayingthe life of Francis of Assisi. In the 1400s Florentineartist Masaccio (muh•ZAH•chee•oh) employedlighting and perspective in his paintings to givedepth to the human body and to set off his figuresfrom the background. He thus created an evengreater sense of realism than Giotto had.

Chapter 16 Renaissance and Reformation 409

Samarkand

Timur Lenk Rebuilds Central Mosque

Samarkand, 1404Timur Lenk (Tamerlane), the Mongol ruler, decided to rebuild the central mosque in Samarkand, making it grander than any in Asia. The Bibi Khanum mosque consisted of 4 vaulted halls. Its 480 marble pillars were carried by teams of elephants from quarries 25 miles (40 km) away. The vault of the central dome was so large that one of its gold inscriptions reportedly could be read a mile away. Shortly after completion the central dome collapsed.

AROUND THE

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One of you shallbetray me,”said Jesus, sit-ting amid the

disciples gathered aroundin a flurry of worry, gos-sip, and fear. Between1495 and 1497 Leonardoda Vinci painted The LastSupper on the walls of amonastery in Milan, Italy.Unstable paint and cen-turies of wear slowlydestroyed the mural. In

1977 restoration of the painting began, as shown inthe detail (above) depicting the apostles Matthew,Thaddeus, and Simon. The larger view of the master-

piece (left) shows visitors clustered around whilerestorers continue their work.

Da Vinci was one of the most famous painters ofthe Italian Renaissance. During the Renaissance thepeoples of Europe began to see themselves asEuropeans rather than as members of the kingdom ofChristendom whose single passport was belief. TheRenaissance was a period of upheaval and change inreligion, politics, and economy. The arts flourished.Writers began using the language of their own nationsinstead of Latin. Painters, architects, and sculptorsexperimented with new techniques. Expressing hisbelief in the newfound power of paintings, da Vinciboasted that the painter could “even induce men tofall in love with a picture that does not portray anyliving woman.” Indeed, people throughout the ageshave fallen in love with The Last Supper. �

“The Last Supper”

PICTURING HISTORYVi

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410 Chapter 16 Renaissance and Reformation

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One of the greatest Renaissance artists wasLeonardo da Vinci (VIHN•chee). A citizen ofFlorence, he did much of his work in Milan andRome. Da Vinci is best known for the Mona Lisa, aportrait of a strangely smiling young woman ofFlorence, and The Last Supper, a wall painting ofJesus’ last meal with his disciples. Da Vinci skillful-ly portrayed his subjects’ personalities and feelings.He also made designs on astronomy, mathematics,and anatomy. These drawings often pictured para-chutes, flying machines, and other mechanicalinventions far ahead of his time.

Another outstanding Renaissance artist—Michelangelo Buonarroti—began his career as asculptor in Florence. There he did a famous marblestatue of David, after the heroic biblical king. Later inRome he sculpted La Pietà (PEE•ay•TAH), whichshows the dead Jesus in the arms of his mother, Mary.Most of Michelangelo’s sculptures were awesome insize and suggested controlled but intense emotions.

In 1508 Pope Julius II hired Michelangelo to paint the Vatican’s Sistine Chapel ceiling withscenes from the Bible. All Michelangelo’s paintedfigures resembled sculptures. They had well-formed muscular bodies that expressed vitality andpower. Michelangelo ended his career by designingthe dome of the new St. Peter’s Basilica.

Raphael Santi also worked at the Vatican. Hecompleted a series of paintings on classical and reli-gious themes for the pope’s apartment. Raphael ismost noted for his paintings of Mary, the mother ofJesus. These works reflected the Renaissance idealsof grace, harmony, and beauty.

Women and the ArtsAlthough Renaissance women had few roles

independent of men, some of them did contributeto the arts. These women were either daughters ofartists who trained in their fathers’ workshops orchildren of noblemen, who were expected to haveliterary, musical, and artistic skills. Among the mostcelebrated female artists were the portrait painters

Lavinia Fontana and Sofonisba Anguissola(soh•foh•NIHZ•bah ahn•gwee•SOH•lah). AnItalian noblewoman, Anguissola became a painterat the Spanish royal court of King Philip II.

Chapter 16 Renaissance and Reformation 411

Main Idea1. Use a web diagram like the one

below to show major factorsthat inspired the Renaissance.

Recall2. Define humanism, secular,

individualism, sonnet, doge.3. Identify Niccolò Machiavelli,

Lorenzo de’ Medici, Savona-rola, Michelangelo Buonarroti,Leonardo da Vinci.

Critical Thinking4. Making Comparisons How

does the role of female artists

today compare with the role offemale artists during theRenaissance?

Understanding Themes5. Innovation Identify one

masterpiece in Renaissance literature or the arts. Explainhow it reflects Renaissanceideals. Also state what subjectis represented.

La Pietà by Michelangelo Buonarroti. St.Peter’s Basilica, The Vatican, Rome, Italy

What is the subject of La Pietà?

Art&History

SECTION 1 ASSESSMENT

Student Web Activity 16

Visit the World History: The Human Experience Web site at worldhistory.ea.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 16—Student Web Activities for an activity relating to Renaissance art.

FactorsInspiring theRenaissance

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During the late 1400s, Renaissance art andhumanist ideas—characterized by arevival of interest in classical antiquity—

began to filter northward from Italy to France,England, the Netherlands, and other Europeancountries. War, trade, travel, and a newly inventedmethod of printing helped to promote this culturaldiffusion. The people of the Northern Renaissanceadapted ideas of the Italian Renaissance to theirown individual tastes, values, and needs.

Spreading IdeasWar, as usual, helped spread ideas by further-

ing contact between people of different cultures.After France invaded Italy in 1494, French kingsand their warrior-nobles became fascinated byItalian Renaissance art and fashions. In 1517 KingFrancis I brought Leonardo da Vinci to his court inFrance, thus helping to promote the entry ofRenaissance ideas into northern Europe. OtherEuropean monarchs also developed an enthusiasmfor the Renaissance. Kings and queens so eagerlysupported scholars and artists that the number ofhumanists in the north grew rapidly along with thepopularity of humanist ideas.

At the same time, Italian traders living in thenorth set an example for northern European mer-chants, who began to appreciate wealth, beauty,personal improvement, and other Renaissance values. These northern merchants—having onlyrecently become successful enough to affordlifestyles based upon such values—began tospend their wealth on education, fine houses, andmaterial goods. Some northern Europeans began totravel to Italy to study with Italian masters. Thusbegan the emergence of a newly educated middleclass.

> Terms to Definechâteaux

> People to MeetJohannes Gutenberg, Michel de Montaigne, François Rabelais,Desiderius Erasmus, Jan and Hubert van Eyck, Pieter Brueghel, ThomasMore, William Shakespeare

> Places to Locatethe Low Countries

When Shakespeare’s play Hamlet opened inLondon, about 2,000 people crowded in to see theperformance. Admission was one penny. Down infront of the stage, where it was standing room only,

the crowd could be noisy. Onewriter complained: “Suchheaving, and shoving, suchpushing and shouldering—especially by the women!Such care for their clothes,that no one step on theirdress;.… Such smiling andwinking.… Never mind thestage—it is a comedy towatch them!”

—freely adapted fromShakespeare: Of an Age For AllTime, The Yale UniversityFestival Lectures, edited byCharles Tyler Prouty, 1954

S e c t i o n 2

The NorthernRenaissance

SThetoryteller

William Shakespeare

Read to Find Out Main Idea The Renaissance spread fromItaly to northern Europe.

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This spread of knowledge among the middleclass was aided by the invention of the printingpress. By the 1400s, German engravers had devel-oped movable type, in which the type was set intoadjustable molds, inked, and then pressed onto asheet of paper. In 1456 Johannes Gutenberg print-ed a complete edition of the Bible using movablemetal type. As a result of this invention, books werepublished more quickly and less expensively.Production of humanist texts could now begin tomatch the newfound desire for such works.

Although Italian Renaissance ideas becamequite popular in the north, they were not merelytransplanted there. Rather, northern scholars inter-preted them according to their own individualways of thinking. Furthermore, the people of eachnorthern culture adapted these ideas to suit theirown needs and traditions.

The French RenaissanceThe French Renaissance had a character all its

own. French architects blended medieval Gothic tow-ers and windows with the classical arches used byItalian architects to create châteaux (sha•TOHZ), orcastles, for Francis I and his nobles. These countryestates were erected mainly in the Loire valley.

Many French Renaissance writers borrowedextensively from the new literary forms of the ItalianRenaissance. Inspired by Petrarch’s sonnets, PierreRonsard (rohn•SAHR) wrote his own sonnets withcommon humanist themes such as love, the passingof youth, and the poet’s immortality. Michel deMontaigne (mahn•TAYN) may have based his infor-mal and direct style on Italian literary models. Hecultivated the literary form called the personal essay,a short prose composition written to express clearlythe personal view of a writer on a subject. In hisessay “Of the Disadvantages of Greatness,”Montaigne analyzed the authority of royalty:

The most difficult occupation in the world,in my opinion, is to play the part of a kingworthily. I excuse more of their faults thanpeople commonly do, in consideration ofthe dreadful weight of their burden, whichdazes me. It is difficult for a power soimmoderate to observe moderation.…

Physician-monk François Rabelais (RA•buh•LAY), France’s most popular Renaissance author,wrote comic tales, satires, and parodies on a broadspectrum of contemporary life. He rejected theMiddle Ages’ focus on the afterlife and believed

that people should enjoy life to the fullest. He alsowrote on such subjects as law, medicine, politics,theology, botany, and navigation.

Northern EuropeThe Italian Renaissance was enthusiastically

accepted by the wealthy towns of Germany and theLow Countries (present-day Belgium, Luxembourg,and the Netherlands). Universities and schools pro-moted humanist learning, and printers produced alarge quantity of books. Latin was still the mainscholarly language, but writers increased their useof German and Dutch.

Christian HumanismUnlike in Italy, the Renaissance in northern

Europe had a more religious tone. Groups of schol-ars, known as Christian humanists, wanted reformsin Catholicism that would eliminate abuses andrestore the simple piety of the early Church. Theybelieved that humanist learning and Bible studywere the best ways to promote these goals.

The most famous Christian humanist,Desiderius Erasmus (dehz•ih•DEER•ee•uhsih•RAZ•muhs), inspired his colleagues to studyGreek and Hebrew so that they could understandolder versions of the Bible written in these lan-

Erasmus by Quentin Metsys. The“Prince of the Humanists” joined a

love for the classics with respect for Christian values.What reforms did Christian humanists promote?

HistoryVisualizing

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414 Chapter 16 Renaissance and Reformation

guages. Erasmus also used biting humor to makepeople take a more critical view of society. Hespecifically attacked the wealth of Renaissancepopes, as in his noted work, The Praise of Folly:

Scarce any kind of men live more [devot-ed to pleasure] or with less trouble.… Towork miracles is … not in fashion now; toinstruct the people, troublesome; to inter-pret the Scripture, [too bookish]; to pray,a sign one has little else to do … and last-ly, to die, uncouth; and to be stretched ona cross, infamous.

Northern European PaintersArtists in northern Europe developed a style of

painting that relied more on medieval than classicalmodels. In the early 1400s, a group of Flemish

painters, led by the brothers Jan and Hubert vanEyck (EYEK), painted scenes from the Bible anddaily life in sharp, realistic detail. They developedthe technique of painting in oils. Oils providedartists with richer colors and allowed them to makechanges on the painted canvas. Painting in oils soonspread to Italy. Meanwhile, Italian Renaissance artreached northern Europe. Artists such as AlbrechtDürer and Pieter Brueghel (BROY•guhl) combinedItalian technique with the artistic traditions of theirhomelands. They painted realistic portraits, reli-gious themes, landscapes, and scenes of daily life.

The English RenaissanceRenaissance ideas did not spread to England

until 1485, when the Wars of the Roses—bloodyconflicts over who was the rightful heir to thethrone—ended. Ultimately, the Tudor family defeat-ed the York family, bringing the Tudor king HenryVII to power. Henry invited Italian Renaissancescholars to England, where they taught humanistideas and encouraged the study of classical texts.

English humanists expressed deep interest insocial issues. Thomas More, a statesman and afriend of Erasmus, wrote a book that criticized thesociety of his day by comparing it with an idealsociety in which all citizens are equal and prosper-ous. The book, written in Latin, was called Utopia.

The English Renaissance was especially knownfor drama. The best-known English playwrightswere William Shakespeare and ChristopherMarlowe. They drew ideas for their works frommedieval legends, classical mythology, and the histories of England, Denmark, and ancient Rome.Shakespeare dealt with universal human qualitiessuch as jealousy, ambition, love, and despair soeffectively that his plays are still relevant to audiences today.

Main Idea1. Use a diagram like the one

below to show the ways inwhich the Italian Renaissancespread to northern Europe.

Recall2. Define châteaux.3. Identify Johannes Gutenberg,

Michel de Montaigne, FrançoisRabelais, Desiderius Erasmus,Jan and Hubert van Eyck, Pieter Brueghel,Thomas More,William Shakespeare.

Critical Thinking4. Applying Information

Choose one northern Europeanwriter or artist and explain howhis or her works reflectedRenaissance ideas.

Understanding Themes5. Cultural Diffusion In what

ways did northern Europe alterRenaissance ideas?

Peasant’s Dance by Pieter Brueghel theElder. The painting emphasizes the

enjoyments of common people. What four subjects didnorthern European realistic artists paint?

Art&History

Spread of Italian Renaissanceto Northern Europe

SECTION 2 ASSESSMENT

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Chapter 16 Renaissance and Reformation 415

The Renaissance values of humanismand secularism stimulated widespreadcriticism of the Catholic Church’s

extravagance. By about 1500, educated Europeansbegan calling for a reformation—a change in theChurch’s ways of teaching and practicingChristianity. In Germany the movement for churchreform eventually led to a split in the Church thatproduced a new form of Christianity known asProtestantism. The series of events that gave birthto Protestantism is known as the ProtestantReformation.

Martin LutherThe Protestant Reformation was begun by a

German monk named Martin Luther, born in 1483,the son of middle-class townspeople. His fatherwanted him to become a lawyer, but Luther wasinterested in religion. In 1505 he was nearly struckby lightning in a thunderstorm. Terrified that thestorm was God’s way of punishing him, the lawstudent knelt and prayed to Saint Anne. In returnfor protection, he promised to become a monk.Shortly thereafter, Luther entered a monastery.

As a young monk, Luther struggled to ensurehis soul’s salvation. He would confess his sins forhours at a time. Yet still he worried that God mightnot find him acceptable.

Then he read Saint Paul’s Epistle to theRomans: “He who through faith is righteous shalllive”—and Luther’s worries dissolved. He inter-preted this to mean that a person could be madejust, or good, simply by faith in God’s mercy andlove. Luther’s idea became known as justificationby faith. Luther later stated that because of this dis-covery he felt as if he “had been born again and hadentered Paradise through wide open gates.”

> Terms to Definejustification by faith, indulgences, vocation

> People to MeetMartin Luther, Pope Leo X

> Places to LocateWittenberg, Worms

In later years, Martin Luther remembered thefateful day he entered the monastery: “AfterwardsI regretted my vow, and many of my friends triedto persuade me not to enter the monastery. I, how-ever, was determined to go through with it.… Iinvited certain of my best men friends to a farewell

party.… In tears theyled me away; and myfather was very angry… yet I persisted in mydetermination. It neveroccurred to me to leavethe monastery.” Luther’sbreak with the Churchwas an even biggerdecision than the one toenter monastic life.

—adapted from Lutherand His Times, E.G.Schweibert, 1950

S e c t i o n 3

The ProtestantReformation

SThetoryteller

Martin Luther

Read to Find Out Main Idea Luther’s religious reformsled to Protestantism, a new branch ofChristianity.

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416 Chapter 16 Renaissance and Reformation

Luther’s ProtestLuther’s ideas gradually matured and eventu-

ally brought him into conflict with the Church. Atthis time Pope Leo X was trying to raise money torebuild St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome. To this end, thepope sold church positions to his friends and alsoauthorized sales of indulgences.

Indulgences were certificates issued by theChurch that were said to reduce or even cancelpunishment for a person’s sins—as long as one alsotruly repented. People purchased indulgencesbelieving that the document would assure themadmission to heaven. John Tetzel, the Church’sagent for selling indulgences in northern Germany,even went so far as to promise peasants that indul-gences would relieve them of guilt for future sins.He also encouraged people to buy indulgences forthe salvation of their dead relatives. Tetzel’s sale ofindulgences inspired a popular jingle: “Once youhear the money’s ring, the soul from purgatory isfree to spring.” (According to church teaching, pur-

gatory is a place in the afterlife where people aremade fit for heaven.)

Luther, a professor and priest in the town ofWittenberg, preached against the sale of indul-gences. He also lectured against other church prac-tices he believed were corrupt. Then, on October 31,1517, Luther nailed on the door of the WittenbergChurch a placard with 95 theses, or statements, crit-icizing indulgences and other church policies.

Breaking With RomePrinted copies of the Ninety-five Theses spread

quickly all over Germany. Sales of indulgencesdeclined sharply. Encouraged by this reaction,Luther published hundreds of essays advocatingjustification by faith and attacking church abuses.

Pope Leo X responded to the decline in indul-gence sales by sending envoys to Germany to per-suade Luther to withdraw his criticisms. But Lutherrefused. In 1520 the pope formally condemnedLuther and banned his works. In 1521 Pope Leo Xexcommunicated Luther from the Church.

Shortly after Luther’s excommunication, a diet,or council, of German princes met in Worms,Germany, to try to bring Luther back into the Church.They decided that Luther should take back his crit-

PrintingBefore the 1400s books had to be copied by hand—a time-

consuming method. Consequently, books were rare, owned and readonly by scholars and the wealthy.Gutenberg’s invention of movabletype changed all that: books could be produced faster at lower cost;more people were able to buy booksand expand their knowledge; andtraditional ideas were questioned.German printers quickly adoptedGutenberg’s invention and set upsimilar printing presses in otherEuropean countries.Martin Luther was one of the firstauthors to benefit from the new

technology. Since his books could be repro-duced inexpensively and in large quantities,they could be easily obtained throughoutEurope shortly after Luther completed them.Thus, Luther was able to spread his ideas and

gain widespread support before the CatholicChurch could respond.

In the past few decades, more advanceshave been made in printing than in all theyears since Gutenberg. Today high-speedmachines and computer technology togeth-er have revolutionized the printing industry.Images are now transferred onto paperdirectly from computer files. The develop-ment of copy machines and laser printershas also made smaller printing jobs easier.

Describe how Gutenberg’s print-ing press transformed European soci-ety during the 1400s and 1500s. Howdid Luther benefit from Gutenberg’sinvention? Explain how computertechnology and other innovationshave transformed printing and othermeans of communication today.

CON

NECTIONS

CO

NNECTIONS

Gutenberg’s press

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Chapter 16 Renaissance and Reformation 417

icisms of the papacy. Meanwhile, Luther traveled toWorms as crowds of cheering people lined the road.Luther strode into the assembly hall and, when askedto take back his teachings, gave this reply: “I ambound by the Sacred Scriptures I have cited … andmy conscience is captive to the Word of God. I cannotand will not recant [take back] anything.… God helpme.” Luther, condemned as a heretic and outlaw,was rushed out of Worms and hidden at a castle inWartburg by a friend, Prince Frederick of Saxony.

While in hiding, Luther translated the NewTestament into German. Earlier German translationsof the Bible were so rare and costly that few peoplehad them. With Luther’s more affordable transla-tion, most people could now read the Bible.

LutheranismAfter Worms, Luther laid the foundation of the

first Protestant faith: Lutheranism. While Catholicismstressed faith and good works in salvation and theimportance of church teaching as a spiritual guide,

Lutheranism emphasized salvation by faith aloneand the Bible’s role as the only source of religioustruth. Lutheran services centered on biblicalpreaching rather than ritual and were held in thelanguage of the people instead of Latin. In this waypeople could understand and participate in the ser-vices. Luther and his followers also held that theChurch was not a hierarchy of clergy, but a com-munity of believers. All useful occupations, not just the priesthood, were vocations, or callings, inwhich people could serve God and neighbor.

Lutheranism brought a new religious messageto Germany, but it also stirred social unrest amongpeasants wanting to end serfdom. When a majorpeasant revolt erupted in 1525, Luther, fearingsocial chaos, backed the princes against the peas-ants. The princes cruelly put down the uprising,killing thousands of people. Lutheranism became amore conservative movement as a result; however,it had already sown the seeds of more radicalProtestant movements that would transformEurope’s religious landscape.

Main Idea1. Use a diagram like the one

below to show Luther’s actionsthat led to Church reform.

Recall2. Define justification by faith,

indulgences, vocation.3. Identify Protestant

Reformation, Martin Luther,Pope Leo X.

Critical Thinking4. Synthesizing Information If

you wanted to protest against

something today, what mediumwould you use to communicateyour cause? Why?

Understanding Themes5. Conflict Why did Pope Leo X

ask Martin Luther to recant hisbeliefs and then excommuni-cate him when Luther wouldnot do so?

Luther Preaching tothe Faithful, (artist

unknown). National Museum,Copenhagen, Denmark Whatwas Luther’s view of vocations?(below) Indulgence box—anitem that Luther opposed.

Art&History

Luther’s Actions

Reform➔ ➔

SECTION 3 ASSESSMENT

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Although the Protestant Reformationspread throughout Europe in the1500s, divisions began to appear with-

in the movement soon after it had started. Not onlydid the Protestant reformers not believe in the samemethods; they did not even agree on the same goals.

Swiss ReformersAfter the rise of Lutheranism in Germany,

many preachers and merchants in neighboringSwitzerland separated from Rome and set upchurches known as Reformed. Huldrych Zwingli,a Swiss priest who lived from 1484 to 1531, led theProtestant movement in Switzerland. Like Luther,Zwingli stressed salvation by faith alone anddenounced many Catholic beliefs and practices,such as purgatory and the sale of indulgences.Unlike Luther, though, Zwingli wanted to breakcompletely from Catholic tradition. He wanted toestablish a theocracy, or church-run state, in theSwiss city of Zurich. By 1525 Zwingli had achievedthis goal. But in 1531 war broke out over Protestantmissionary activity in the Catholic areas of Swit-zerland. Zwingli and his force of followers weredefeated by an army of Catholics.

In the mid-1500s John Calvin, another reformer,established the most powerful and influentialReformed group in the Swiss city of Geneva. HereCalvin set up a theocracy similar to Zwingli’s rule inZurich.

Born in 1509, Calvin grew up in CatholicFrance at the start of the Reformation. He receivedan education in theology, law, and humanism thatprompted him to study the Bible very carefullyand to formulate his own Protestant theology. In1536 Calvin published his theology in The Institutesof the Christian Religion, soon one of the most

> Terms to Definetheocracy, predestination

> People to MeetHuldrych Zwingli, John Calvin, theAnabaptists, Henry VIII, Catherine ofAragon, Anne Boleyn, Edward VI, Mary,Elizabeth I

> Places to LocateZurich, Geneva

Mary Queen of Scots was a prisoner for seven-teen long years. What was she to do, as she and herkeeper’s wife sat together all that time? She couldsew. Over the years, she and her attendant ladiesembroidered seas of fabric: tablecloths, cushions, andhangings, every piece scattered with coats of armsand emblems, every piece sprinkled with gold and

silver spangles to catch the light.Some became gifts; but occasionallyher presents were rudely refused.Her own son, King James VI,returned a vest his mother hadembroidered for him because shehad addressed it to “The Prince ofScotland.”

—adapted from Mary Queen ofScots, Roy Strong and JuliaTrevelyan Oman, 1972

S e c t i o n 4

The Spread ofProtestantism

SThetoryteller

Mary Queen of Scots

Read to Find Out Main Idea Different forms of Protestantism emerged in Europe as the Reformation spread.

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Chapter 16 Renaissance and Reformation 419

popular books of its day, influencing religiousreformers in Europe and later in North America.

The cornerstone of Calvin’s theology was thebelief that God possessed all-encompassing powerand knowledge. Calvin contended that God alonedirected everything that has happened in the past,that happens in the present, and that will happen inthe future. Thus, he argued, God determines the fateof every person—a doctrine he called predestination.

To advance his views, Calvin tried to turn thecity of Geneva into a model religious community.He began this project in 1541 by establishing theConsistory, a church council of 12 elders that wasgiven the power to control almost every aspect ofpeople’s daily lives. All citizens were required toattend Reformed church services several times eachweek. The Consistory inspected homes annually tomake sure that no one was disobeying the laws thatforbade fighting, swearing, drunkenness, gam-bling, card playing, and dancing. It dispensedharsh punishments to those who disobeyed. Thisatmosphere earned Geneva the title “City of God”and attracted reformers from all over Europe.

Visitors to Geneva helped to spread Calvinism,or John Calvin’s teaching, throughout Europe.Because the Calvinist church was led by local coun-cils of ministers and elected church members, it waseasy to establish in most countries. Furthermore,the somewhat democratic structure of this organi-zation gave its participants a stake in its welfareand inspired their intense loyalty.

The people of the Netherlands and Scotlandbecame some of Calvin’s most ardent supporters.John Knox, a leader of the Reformation in Scotland,and other reformers used Calvin’s teachings toencourage moral people to overthrow “ungodly”rulers. They preached, as Calvin had, “We must obeyprinces and others who are in authority, but onlyinsofar as they do not deny to God, the supremeKing, Father, and Lord, what is due Him.” Calvinismthus became a dynamic social force in westernEurope in the 1500s and contributed to the rise of rev-olutionary movements later in the 1600s and 1700s.

Radical ReformersSeveral new Protestant groups in western

Europe, called the Anabaptists, initiated the prac-tice of baptizing, or admitting into their groups,only adult members. They based this practice onthe belief that only people who could make a freeand informed choice to become Christians shouldbe allowed to do so. Catholic and establishedProtestant churches, in contrast, baptized infants.

Many Anabaptists denied the authority of localgovernments to direct their lives. They refused tohold office, bear arms, or swear oaths, and manylived separate from a society they saw as sinful.Consequently, they were often persecuted by gov-ernment officials, forcing many Anabaptists towander from country to country seeking refuge.

Although most Anabaptists were peaceful, oth-ers were fanatical in their beliefs. These zealotsbrought about the downfall of the rest. When in1534 radical Anabaptists seized power in theGerman city of Münster and proceeded to burnbooks, seize private property, and practicepolygamy, Lutherans and Catholics united to crushthem. Together they killed the Anabaptist leadersand persecuted any surviving Anabaptist believers.

As a result, many Anabaptist groups leftEurope for North America during the 1600s. In theAmericas, the Anabaptists promoted two ideas thatwould become crucial in forming the United Statesof America: religious liberty and separation ofchurch and state. Today, Protestant groups such asthe Baptists, Mennonites, and Amish all trace theirancestry to the Anabaptists.

England’s ChurchReformation ideas filtered into England during

the 1500s. A serious quarrel between King HenryVIII and the pope brought them to the forefront.

The quarrel arose over succession to the throne.Of Henry’s six children by Catherine of Aragon,only Mary survived. Henry wanted to leave a maleheir to the throne to avoid civil war. Believing thatCatherine was too old to have more children, theking decided to marry Anne Boleyn. In 1527 Henryasked the pope to agree to a divorce between himselfand Catherine. But Catherine’s nephew was thepowerful Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, uponwhom the pope depended for protection. Charleswanted Catherine to remain as queen of England inorder to influence the country’s policies in favor of

King Henry VIIIHenry VIII was a typicalRenaissance ruler who tried

to excel in many areas. He enjoyed tennis, joust-ing, music, and discussions about religion and thesciences. He wrote a book of theology and com-posed several pieces of music, one of which mayhave been the song “Greensleeves.”

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his own interests. The pope refused Henry’s request.Henry would not be thwarted. With

Parliament’s support, he had a series of lawspassed that separated the English Church from thepope. The most important law, the Act ofSupremacy passed in 1534, made Henry head of theEnglish Church instead of the pope. Despite thisbreak with Rome, Henry was not a Protestantreformer. The new Church of England kept Catholic

doctrines and forms of worship. Devout Catholics,however, opposed the king’s rule of the Church.The most noted Catholic, the humanist scholarThomas More, was beheaded for treason in 1535.Henry took other measures against supporters ofthe old religion. Between 1536 and 1540, he closedmonasteries and convents, seized their land, andshared the gains with nobles and other high officials.In this way, the king filled his treasury and ensuredinfluential support for his religious policies.

Henry also worked to strengthen the succes-sion to the throne. He had the Church of Englandend his marriage to Catherine and then wed AnneBoleyn. Anne bore him a daughter, Elizabeth. In theyears that followed, Henry married four moretimes but had only one son, Edward. When Henrydied in 1547, 9-year-old Edward succeeded him tothe throne. The young king was dominated bydevout Protestant officials who introducedProtestant doctrines into the Church of England.

When Edward VI died in his teens, his Catholichalf sister Mary became queen. Mary tried torestore Catholicism in England and ended up burn-ing hundreds of Protestants at the stake. This per-secution earned her the nickname of “BloodyMary” and only served to strengthen her people’ssupport for Protestantism.

After Mary’s death in 1558, her Protestant halfsister, Elizabeth I, became queen. To unite her people, Elizabeth followed a moderate course inreligion. She made the English Church Protestantwith some Catholic features. Anglicanism, as thisblend of Protestant belief and Catholic practice wascalled, pleased most English people. However, radical Protestants known as Puritans wanted to“purify” the English Church of Catholic rituals.Although at first small in numbers, the Puritansgradually became influential both in the Church ofEngland and the English Parliament.

Main Idea1. Use a diagram like the one

below to identify differentforms of Protestantism thatarose during the Reformation.

Recall2. Define theocracy,

predestination.3. Identify Huldrych Zwingli,

John Calvin, the Anabaptists,Henry VIII, Catherine ofAragon, Anne Boleyn, Edward VI, Mary, Elizabeth I.

Critical Thinking4. Making Comparisons How

did Calvinist and Anabaptistattitudes differ about partici-pating in government activities?

Understanding Themes5. Cultural Diffusion Why did

the Catholic Church want tostop the spread of Protestantideas?

Henry VIII, a portrait by Hans Holbein,shows the king’s splendid royal attire,

reflecting his authority. Why did Henry seekParliament’s support in breaking with the Catholic Church?

Art&History

Protestantism

SECTION 4 ASSESSMENT

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Critical ThinkingCritical Thinking

Chapter 16 Renaissance and Reformation 421

In a geography trivia game, you picked thefollowing question: What is the longest riverin the world? The game card says it is the

Amazon River, but you think it is the Nile River.How can you prove you are right?

You must identify evidence that will establishyour claim. In the example above, you could con-sult an atlas, almanac, or encyclopedia to find thelengths of both rivers. (The Nile River is 4,160miles long, while the Amazon is 4,000 miles long.)

Learning the SkillThere are four basic kinds of evidence: 1) oral

accounts (eyewitness testimony); 2) written docu-ments (diaries, letters, books, articles); 3) objects(artifacts); and 4) visual items (photographs,videotapes, paintings). These kinds of evidencefall into one of two categories—primary evidenceand secondary evidence.

Primary evidence is produced by participantsor eyewitnesses to events. Eyewitness accounts orphotographs of a fire are examples of primaryevidence. Secondary evidence is produced later,by those who have not experienced the eventsdirectly. Textbooks and encyclopedias are exam-ples of secondary evidence.

To identify evidence that proves a claim, firstclearly define the claim. Search available informa-tion to find the kind of evidence that can prove ordisprove the claim. Compare the pieces of evi-

Identifying Evidencedence to see if they agree. Also, rate the objectivityof your evidence. If you consulted an atlas,almanac, or encyclopedia, these are all reliablesources of information. However, if you are usingletters, diaries, and news accounts, carefully assesswhich evidence is most reliable.

Practicing the SkillRead the claim below. Then read each piece of

evidence that follows. Decide which pieces of evi-dence prove the claim to be true and explain why.Claim: Humanism’s emphasis on the value of the indi-vidual led to artistic flowering in the Renaissance.1. In Renaissance Italy humanist scholars opened

schools to promote the study of history, phi-losophy, Latin, and Greek.

2. Renaissance artists used painting and sculp-ture to convey human emotions and values.

3. In Rome, the pope and cardinals made up thewealthiest and most powerful class of people.

4. In England, William Shakespeare wrote playsthat dealt with universal human qualities suchas jealousy, ambition, love, and despair.

5. The invention of the printing press spreadknowledge of humanism.

Applying the SkillThink about this claim: Renaissance humanist

values still dominate modern American culture.Find at least five pieces of evidence from news-papers, magazines, and other sources to prove ordisprove this claim.

For More PracticeTurn to the Skill Practice in the Chapter

Assessment on page 431.

The Glencoe SkillbuilderInteractive Workbook, Level 2provides instruction and practice inkey social studies skills.

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yteller

Most of the people in Spain, France,Italy, Portugal, Hungary, Poland,and southern Germany remained

Catholic during the Protestant Reformation.Nevertheless, Catholicism’s power was threatenedby Protestantism’s increasing popularity in north-ern Europe. To counter the Protestant challenge,Catholics decided to enact reforms. The CatholicChurch had had a history of periodic reform sincethe Middle Ages. Thus, in the movement that cameto be known as the Counter-Reformation, orCatholic Reformation, the Church eliminated manyabuses, clarified its theology, and reestablished thepope’s authority over church members.

Reaffirming CatholicismDuring the 1530s and 1540s, Pope Paul III set

out to reform the Church and stem the Protestantadvance. To establish the goals of the CatholicReformation, he called a council of bishops at Trent,Italy, in 1545.

The Council of TrentThe Council of Trent, which met in several ses-

sions until 1563, reaffirmed Catholic teachings thathad been challenged by the Protestants. Salvation,it declared, comes through faith and good works,and church tradition is equal to the Bible as a sourceof religious truth. The Latin Vulgate translation ofthe Bible was made the only acceptable version ofscripture.

The Council also put an end to many churchabuses. It forbade the selling of indulgences. Clergywere ordered to follow strict rules of behavior. The

> Terms to Defineseminary, baroque

> People to MeetPope Paul III, the Jesuits, Ignatius of Loyola

> Places to LocateTrent

The Inquisition sometimes used “ordeals” todetermine guilt or innocence, confident that Godwould give victory to an innocent person and pun-ish the guilty. In the “Trial of the Cross,” both par-ties, accuser and accused, stood before a cross witharms outstretched. The first to drop his arms wasjudged guilty. In the “Trial by Hot Water,” theaccused lifted a stone from the bottom of a boilingcauldron. If, after three days, his wound had healed,

he was innocent. Inthe “Trial by ColdWater,” the accusedwas tied up and low-ered into water. If hesank, he was innocent.If he floated, he wasguilty.

—from The MedievalInquisition, AlbertClement Shannon,1983

S e c t i o n 5

The CatholicReformation

SThetoryteller

Trial of Books (detail)

Read to Find Out Main Idea The Catholic Church attemptedto halt the spread of Protestantism.

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Chapter 16 Renaissance and Reformation 423

Council decided that each diocese had to establisha seminary, or theological school, to ensure a bet-ter-educated clergy.

The InquisitionTo deal with the Protestant threat, Pope Paul

also strengthened the Inquisition. As you read inChapter 12, the Inquisition was a church court setup to stamp out heresy. In addition to carrying outits traditional functions, the Inquisition in the 1500sintroduced censorship to curtail humanist andProtestant thinking. In 1543 it published the Indexof Forbidden Books, a list of works considered tooimmoral or irreligious for Catholics to read.

The ArtsThe Church also used the arts to further the

Catholic Reformation. The Council of Trent main-tained the Church’s elaborate art and ritual, and itdeclared that the Mass should be said only in Latin.

Church art and Latin ritual were to serve as sourcesof inspiration for educated and less educatedCatholics alike. Many artists were influenced by theintensely emotional devotion of the CatholicReformation. One of these was the Greek painterDomenikos Theotokopoulos, known in Spain as ElGreco, or “The Greek.” Residing in Spain, El Grecopainted the saints in distorted figures that showedstrong religious feelings.

As the Catholic Reformation spread throughEurope, it helped spark a new style of art and archi-tecture called baroque (buh•ROHK). The Renais-sance arts had shown restraint, simplicity, andorder, but the baroque arts stressed emotion, com-plexity, and exaggeration for dramatic effect. Inpainting, Peter Paul Rubens of Flanders was a mas-ter of the baroque style. He painted large altar-pieces of emotional religious scenes as well asmythological subjects. Another master was theSpaniard Diego Velázquez, who painted portraits atthe Spanish royal court. Among the most famous

The Council of Trent by Titian. Held off and on for about 20 years,this church council reaffirmed Catholic doctrine and introduced

reforms. What Bible was made the only acceptable version?

Art&History

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baroque architects was the Italian artist GianLorenzo Bernini. His best known work is the publicsquare of St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome, which isenclosed by two great semicircles of columns.

Spreading CatholicismThe Church also set out to win converts and to

strengthen the spiritual life of Catholics. Many reli-gious orders and individuals in the Church becameinvolved in these efforts.

Ignatius of LoyolaIn 1540 the pope recognized a new religious

order, the Society of Jesus, or Jesuits. Founded byIgnatius of Loyola, the Jesuits worked to spreadCatholicism and combat heresy.

Ignatius was a Spanish noble whose militarycareer had ended abruptly when he was woundedin battle. During a long recovery, he found comfortin the lives of the saints and vowed to serve God.

The outcome of his vow was the founding of theJesuits, who followed a strict spiritual disciplineand pledged absolute obedience to the pope.

The Jesuits wore the black robes of monks,lived simple lives, but did not withdraw from theworld. They preached to the people, helped thepoor, and set up schools. They also served as advis-ers in royal courts and founded universities. Jesuitcenters of learning taught not only theology butalso physics, astronomy, mathematics, archaeology,and other subjects.

As missionaries, the Jesuits helped strengthenCatholicism in southern Germany, Bohemia, Poland,and Hungary. They also carried their message to theAmericas, Africa, and Asia. The Jesuit priest MatteoRicci, for example, traveled to China and preachedChristianity at the court of the Ming emperor. Tomake his message relevant to Chinese needs, Riccilearned to speak Chinese and dressed in Chineseclothing. Although he had little success in spreadinghis religious beliefs, Ricci shared with Chinese schol-ars his knowledge of European arts and sciences.

10°W20°W 0° 10°E 20°E 30°E

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AnabaptistCalvinistLutheranRoman CatholicEastern OrthodoxHussiteJewish

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SpanishNetherlands

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HUNGARY

OTTOMAN EMPIRE

BOHEMIA

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Religions of Europe 1560

By 1560 many northern Europeans had become Protestants, yet most southern Europeans remained Catholics. Region What were the results of this religious division?

MapStudy

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Teresa of AvilaAnother supporter of Catholic renewal was the

Spanish nun Teresa of Avila. Born to a noble familyin 1515, Teresa entered a Carmelite convent. Dailylife there, however, was not strict enough for thedeeply religious Teresa, so she set up her own orderof Carmelite nuns. Teresa later opened many newconvents throughout Spain. Made a saint after herdeath, Teresa’s spiritual writings rank as classics ofChristianity.

A Divided EuropeWhile Catholicism carried out reforms, the

Catholic Holy Roman Emperor Charles V tried, butfailed, to stem the spread of Protestantism in hisdomains. Finally, in 1555, Charles and the Germanprinces signed the Peace of Augsburg, whichallowed each prince—whether Catholic orLutheran—to choose the religion of his subjects.

This treaty set the stage for the division ofEurope into a Protestant north and a Catholicsouth, a division that remains to this day. NorthernGermany and Scandinavia were Lutheran. Areas ofsouthern Germany, Switzerland, the Netherlands,and Scotland—with their economic wealth based intowns—held to Calvinism. England set up its ownAnglican Church, a blend of Protestantism andCatholicism under royal control.

There were many reasons why Europeans inlarge numbers supported Protestantism. One rea-son was undoubtedly religious conviction.However, nonreligious factors were also involved.German princes often favored Protestantism inorder to increase their power. They madeProtestantism the official religion of their territo-ries, placing it under their control. They also seizedlands and wealth owned by the Catholic Church.Townspeople also rallied to the new faith, whichsupported their business practices. Above all,northern Europeans saw Protestantism as a way to

defy an Italian-controlled Catholic Church thatdrew so much money from their homelands.

During the 1500s and early 1600s, religious warsengulfed Europe, bringing widespread killing anddestruction. In France, a struggle for the monarchyheightened bitter fighting between FrenchProtestants, or Huguenots, and the Catholic major-ity. Both sides carried out terrible atrocities. The mostinfamous event was the Saint Bartholomew’s DayMassacre. On that day—August 24, 1572—violenceerupted that led to the killing of 3,000 Huguenots.

Religious bigotry also brought hard times toEuropean Jews caught in the middle of theChristian feuding. One exception to this pattern ofintolerance was the Netherlands, which took inJews driven out of other areas of Europe.

Main Idea1. Use a chart like the one below

to show steps the CatholicChurch took to stop the spreadof Protestantism.

Recall2. Define seminary, baroque.3. Identify Pope Paul III,

the Jesuits, Ignatius of Loyola.Critical Thinking4. Analyzing Information List

any three of the reforms pro-posed by the Council of Trent.

Beside each reform, give theProtestant viewpoint to which it responded.

Understanding Themes5. Reaction Which of the

Catholic Church’s actionsagainst Protestantism were suc-cessful, and which were not?

Jesuit missionaries in Japan aredepicted by a Japanese painter. Who

founded the Society of Jesus?

HistoryVisualizing

Church’s Efforts to Stop Protestantism

SECTION 5 ASSESSMENT

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from

Like many otherRenaissance thinkers,Niccolò Machiavelli

(1469–1527) analyzed human actionsrather than spiritual issues. Unlikemany of his contemporaries, however,he focused on the selfish side of humannature more than on humanity’s poten-tial for progress. Machiavelli observedhow successful politicians won andsecured power. He sent his thoughts toan Italian prince, hoping to win a posi-tion as an adviser. His ruthlessly hon-est look at how politicians act both con-firms and challenges the views we havetoward our leaders.

The Princeby Niccolò Machiavelli

I t is the custom of those who are anxiousto find favor in the eyes of a prince to pre-

sent him with such things as they value mosthighly or in which they see him take delight.Hence offerings are made of horses, arms, gold-en cloth, precious stones and such ornaments,worthy of the greatness of the Prince. Sincetherefore I am desirous of presenting myself toYour Magnificence with some token of myeagerness to serve you, I have been able to findnothing in what I possess which I hold moredear or in greater esteem than the knowledge ofthe actions of great men which has come to methrough a long experience of present-day affairsand continual study of ancient times. And hav-ing pondered long and diligently on this knowl-edge and tested it well, I have reduced it to a lit-tle volume which I now send to YourMagnificence. Though I consider this workunworthy of your presence, nonetheless I havemuch hope that your kindness may find itacceptable, if it be considered that I could offeryou no better gift than to give you occasion tolearn in a very short space of time all that I havecome to have knowledge and understanding ofover many years and through many hardshipsand dangers. I have not adorned the work norinflated it with lengthy clauses nor pompous ormagnificent words, nor added any other refine-ment or extrinsic ornament wherewith many arewont to advertise or embellish their work, for ithas been my wish either that no honor should begiven it or that simply the truth of the material

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and the gravity of the subject should make itacceptable.…

As for the exercise of the mind, the princeshould read the histories of all peoples and pon-der on the actions of the wise men thereinrecorded, note how they governed themselves intime of war, examine the reasons for their victo-ries or defeats in order to imitate the former andavoid the latter, and above all conduct himself inaccordance with the example of some great manof the past.…

We now have left to consider what shouldbe the manners and attitudes of a prince towardhis subjects and his friends. As I know that manyhave written on this subject I feel that I may beheld presumptuous in what I have to say, if inmy comments I do not follow the lines laiddown by others. Since, however, it has been myintention to write something which may be of

use to the understanding reader, it has seemedwiser to me to follow the real truth of the matterrather than what we imagine it to be. For imagi-nation has created many principalities andrepublics that have never been seen or known tohave any real existence, for how we live is so dif-ferent from how we ought to live that he whostudies what ought to be done rather than whatis done will learn the way to his downfall ratherthan to his preservation. A man striving in everyway to be good will meet his ruin among thegreat number who are not good. Hence it is nec-essary for a prince, if he wishes to remain inpower, to learn how not to be good and to usehis knowledge or refrain from using it as he mayneed.…

Here the question arises; whether it is betterto be loved than feared or feared than loved. Theanswer is that it would be desirable to be both

Machiavelli advisedLorenzo de’ Medici,

who became the ruler of Florence in1513, to be as cunning as his grandfa-ther, Lorenzo the Magnificent, shownhere. Why did Machiavelli believe it is betterto be feared than loved?

HistoryVisualizing

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but, since that is difficult, it is much safer to befeared than to be loved, if one must choose. Foron men in general this observation may bemade: they are ungrateful, fickle, and deceitful,eager to avoid dangers, and avid for gain, andwhile you are useful to them they are all withyou, offering you their blood, their property,their lives, and their sons so long as danger isremote, as we noted above, but when itapproaches they turn on you. Any prince, trust-ing only in their words and having no otherpreparations made, will fall to his ruin, forfriendships that are bought at a price and not bygreatness and nobility of soul are paid forindeed, but they are not owned and cannot becalled upon in time of need. Men have less hesi-tation in offending a man who is loved than onewho is feared, for love is held by a bond of

obligation which, as men are wicked, is brokenwhenever personal advantage suggests it, butfear is accompanied by the dread of punishmentwhich never relaxes.…

Hence a wise leader cannot and should notkeep his word when keeping it is not to hisadvantage or when the reasons that made himgive it are no longer valid. If men were good,this would not be a good precept, but since theyare wicked and will not keep faith with you, youare not bound to keep faith with them.…

So a prince need not have all the aforemen-tioned good qualities, but it is most essential thathe appear to have them. Indeed, I should go sofar as to say that having them and always prac-ticing them is harmful, while seeming to havethem is useful. It is good to appear clement [mer-ciful], trustworthy, humane, religious, and

This portrait ofCesare Borgia

embodies the pride and confi-dence of the prince about whomMachiavelli wrote his politicalcommentary. Borgia, the son ofthe controversial Pope AlexanderVI, used his position as duke ofRomagna to enhance papal politi-cal power. When should a leader notkeep his word, according toMachiavelli?

HistoryVisualizing

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Chapter 16 Renaissance and Reformation 429

RESPONDING TO LITERATURE

honest, and also to be so, but always with themind so disposed that, when the occasion arisesnot to be so, you can become the opposite. Itmust be understood that a prince and particular-ly a new prince cannot practice all the virtues forwhich men are accounted good, for the necessityof preserving the state often compels him to takeactions which are opposed to loyalty, charity,humanity, and religion. Hence he must have aspirit ready to adapt itself as the varying windsof fortune command him. As I have said, so faras he is able, a prince should stick to the path ofgood but, if the necessity arises, he should knowhow to follow evil.

A prince must take great care that no wordever passes his lips that is not full of the abovementioned five good qualities, and he must seemto all who see and hear him a model of piety,loyalty, integrity, humanity, and religion. Nothingis more necessary than to seem to possess thislast quality, for men in general judge more by theeye than the hand; as all can see but few can feel.Everyone sees what you seem to be, few experi-ence what you really are and these few do notdare to set themselves up against the opinion of the majority supported by the majesty of thestate. In the actions of all men and especiallyprinces, where there is no court of appeal, theend is all that counts. Let a prince then concernhimself with the acquisition or the maintenanceof a state; the means employed will always be considered honorable and praised by all, for the mass of mankind is always swayed by theappearances and by the outcome of an enterprise.…

I am not ignorant of the fact that many have

1. Describe in your own words Machiavelli’sview of human nature.

2. Write a brief essay giving an example thatexplains whether today’s politicians followMachiavelli’s advice.

3. Propose an alternative principle to Machiavelli’s

view that “where there is no court of appeal,the end is all that counts.”

4. Making Judgments Do you think individu-als should follow Machiavelli’s advice in deal-ing with their family, friends, and classmates?Why or why not?

RESPONDING TO LITERATURE

The Pier and the Ducal Palace(detail) by Luca Carlevaris.

According to the principles of Machiavelli, why should aruler carefully maintain the exterior of the palace?

HistoryVisualizing

held and hold the opinion that the things of thisworld are so ordered by fortune and God thatthe prudence of mankind may effect little changein them, indeed is of no avail at all. On this basisit could be argued that there is no point in mak-ing any effort, but we should rather abandonourselves to destiny. This opinion has been themore widely held in our day on account of thegreat variations in things that we have seen andare still witnessing and which are entirelybeyond human conjecture. Sometimes indeed,thinking on such matters, I am minded to sharethat opinion myself. Nevertheless I believe, if weare to keep our free will, that it may be true thatfortune controls half of our actions indeed butallows us the direction of the other half, oralmost half.…

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Reviewing Facts1. Culture Use a chart like the one below to list the

characteristics of Renaissance art.

2. Government/Culture Explain how the city-statesof Renaissance Italy were governed. What socialclasses were present in the typical city-state?

3. Culture Describe how the art and architecture ofthe Renaissance differed from the art and archi-tecture of the Middle Ages.

4. History Discuss why the Protestant andCatholic Reformations were important turningpoints in the history of Europe.

5. Culture Explain why Henry VIII separated fromthe Catholic Church and created the Church ofEngland.

6. Culture State how Ignatius of Loyola and Teresaof Avila helped to reform Catholicism.

Critical Thinking1. Apply Why did the Medici rulers use tax rev-

enues to fund public works projects that benefit-ed all the citizens of Florence?

2. Analyze What were the causes of the ProtestantReformation? Could the Reformation haveoccurred without a reformer such as Luther?

3. Evaluate How did the religious reformations ofthe 1500s affect Europe? How might Europe’sreligious heritage affect efforts toward unitytoday?

Using Key TermsWrite the key term that completes each sentence. Thenwrite a sentence for each term not chosen.

a. baroque h. theocracyb. humanism i. dogec. seminary j. sonnetd. vocations k. châteauxe. indulgences l. secularf. predestination m. individualismg. justification by faith

1. The Catholic Reformation made use of a newstyle of art known as _______.

2. ________, or the Renaissance interest in theancient classical writings, sparked an interest inhuman creativity and fulfillment.

3. A _______ was a Renaissance form of writingthat developed that dealt with the theme oflove.

4. ______ is the belief that a person could be madegood simply by having faith in God’s mercyand love.

5. The Italian city of Venice had a republican styleof government headed by an elected officialcalled a _______.

One effect of the Reformation was themigration of thousands of people to colo-nial America. Research and write a briefhistory of one religious group’s migration.Create a map that shows the origin anddestination(s) of that group.

Using Your History Journal

CHAPTER 16 ASSESSMENT

Self-Check Quiz

Visit the World History: The Human Experience Web site at worldhistory.ea.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 16—Self-Check Quiz to prepare for the Chapter Test.

Renaissance Art

Architecture Painting Sculpture

Using a Computerized CardCatalog Make use of alibrary’s computerized cardcatalog to choose a Renaissance artist to research.Find information about the person’s life andachievements. Using your research, create an oralhistory about that person by role-playing him orher. Have the class ask you questions about yourlife and your contributions to the Renaissance.Your responses should reflect your researchedinformation.

Technology Activity

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Chapter 16 Renaissance and Reformation 431

4. Analyze Apollonio Giovanni, an Italian artist,painted the entry of a group of cavaliers into atown in the 1300s, shown below. In what waysdoes this painting show how Renaissance artistsbroke away from traditional forms?

Understanding Themes1. Innovation Why did the Renaissance begin in

Italy? How did the movement change Europeanthought and culture?

2. Cultural Diffusion How did the people ofnorthern Europe adapt Italian Renaissance ideasto their society?

3. Conflict Could the conflict between Luther andthe pope have been resolved if either had react-ed differently? Explain.

4. Cultural Diffusion What factors helpedProtestant ideas to spread so rapidly?

5. Reaction In what ways could the CatholicReformation be called the Counter-Reformation?

Skill PracticeUse the information in Chapter 16 to find evidence foreach claim below. Then decide which claim you support.

1. Martin Luther was a sincere believer who onlywanted to reform the Catholic Church.

2. Martin Luther was a rebel intent on splitting theCatholic Church.

1. Do you think ancient Greek and Roman culture influences artists, architects, andwriters as much today as it did during theRenaissance? Why or why not?

2. What ideas of the Protestant Reformationdo you think affect the United States today?

Geography in History1. Location What is the approximate location of

the first Spanish bishopric in South America?2. Region In what geographic region were most

Spanish missions established during the 1500s?3. Human/Environment Interaction Large areas

of South America were unreached by missionar-ies in the first 200 years of Spanish, Portuguese,and French mission activity. What geographicfeature contributed to this?

4. Place What river did Jesuit missionaries use asa means of gaining access to the interior ofSouth America?

���

Archbishopric with date of establishment

Bishopric with date ofestablishment

Archdiocese or diocese

Jesuit missionary area

St. Marta1534

Caracas1531

St. Thomas1790

Mérida1778

Cartagena1534

Bogotá1564

Quito1546

Cuenca1769

Belém1720 São Luís

1677

Trujillo1577

Lima1546

Popoyan1546

Ayacucho1609

Cuzco1537

Arequipa1577 Charcas

1609

La Paz1605

Santa Cruz1605

Recife1676

San Salvador1676

Mariana1745

Rio de Janeiro1676

São Paulo1745

Asunción1547

Córdoba1570

Santiago1561

Concepción1564

Buenos Aires1620

N

E

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PACIFICOCEAN

20°S

40°S

80°W 60°W 40°W

Catholic Missions in South America

CHAPTER 16 ASSESSMENT