Chapter 11

Motivation and Emotion

1. What are motives and motivation?

• Motives are reasons or purposes for behavior.

• Motivation includes influences that guide the starting, directing, and persistence of behavior as well as its intensity.

2A. How are intervening variables

helpful in explaining behavior?• an intervening variable  cannot be observed

directly.

• it helps to account for relationship between stimuli (signals, objects, and events, people). and responses.

• IV's are used to explain why the same stimuli may result in different responses at different times.

2B. How are intervening variables helpful in explaining behavior?

• Motivation is an example of an intervening variable and helps explain why behavior changes over time.

• For example, why unhealthy lifestyles don't change until a crisis develops

3A. What are 4 sources of motivation?

• (a)biological - need for food, water, air, sex, oxygen, temperature control and regulation. 

• (b) emotional - panic, anger, joy, love, and other emotions.

3B. What are 4 sources of motivation?

• (c) cognitive - behavior influenced by what we think is possible and how we expect others to respond.

• (d) social - effects of other people and cultural factors

4A. What are 4 theories to explain motivation?

• (a) instinct - automatic, involuntary reflex behavior.

• Released by certain stimuli.

• Includes fixed action patterns.

• (b) drive reduction - based on the idea of homeostasis or maintaining a balance and equilibrium of body systems.

• Imbalance results in need or biological requirement for well-being.

• Need results in drive or state of arousal  prompting action to meet the need or reduce the drive.

• Primary drives are usually biologically-based.• Secondary drives are usually learned.

4B. What are 4 theories to explain motivation?

• (c) arousal - general level of activation in body systems such as  heart, other muscles, and brain is increased

• by biological drives such as hunger or thirst, • loud or bright stimuli, • surprising events • or stimulant drugs. • People are motivated by optimal arousal

(increase if too low and decrease if too high).

• (d) incentive - emphasizes external sources of motivation such as gaining positive outcomes and avoiding negative ones controlled  by external sources.

5. What is the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation?

• Intrinsic motivation - desire to work hard and do well for internal satisfaction.

• Working for satisfaction of the process itself. 

• Extrinsic motivation  - desire to receive external rewards such as money or grades

• and avoid negative  outcomes such as punishment.

6. What is need for achievement?

• Specific motive to master tasks and do them well.

• Mastery seems to result in intense satisfaction.

7A. What evidence is there for individual differences in achievement motivation?

• People with high need for achievement establish challenging, difficult and realistic  goals.

• They pursue success and willing to take risks to succeed.

• They are satisfied is they succeed and are not bothered by failure.

• They emphasize performance and level of ability.

• They desire feedback and often prefer to struggle rather than ask for help.

7B. What evidence is there for individual differences in achievement motivation?

• People with low need for achievement prefer success.

• They experience relief at not failing rather than joy in achieving.

• They do not seek or desire feedback

• They respond to failure by quitting.

8A. How does achievement motivation develop?

• Learned in early childhood, usually from parents. • Parenting strategies can result in high

achievement if parents – (a) encourage children to attempt difficult and

reachable goals,– (b) offer praise for success,– (c) encourage finding ways to succeed– (d) prompt children to go on to the next

challenge.

8B. How does achievement motivation develop?

• Cultural influences – written material (print and electronic media); events and themes in stories;

• Heroes and heroines may work hard and overcome obstacles rather than loaf or try to win the lottery.

• Influences after childhood -  effects of developing fantasies  about success in college;

• Imagine difficult and achievable goals; effects of encouraging a long-term perspective.

9A. How do males and females differ in achievement motivation?

• Women who have high achievement motivation act in more varied ways  than do men who have high achievement motivation.

• Some women don’t establish challenging goals and give up when they experience failure.

• Gender differences appear at an early age.

• Explanation associated with how boys and girls think of themselves.

• Girls are more likely than boys to attribute failure to lack of ability.

9B. How do males and females differ in achievement motivation?

• Gender differences seem to be influenced by how adults respond to the child's failure or success.

• Suggestion to think failure is due to lack of effort

or some situational factor, results in developing challenging goals and will persist more often when experiencing failure.

• Gender role stereotypes are maintained by the prevailing culture.

• For example, high-achieving women may be portrayed as unfeminine and threatening.

10A. How are jobs and motivation related?

• Employers may be more interested in whether employees are motivated to do well on the job than in employees’ general level of achievement motivation.

• Managers often structure jobs in a way to show how they think employees are motivated.

• Managers who believe employees are lazy and untrustworthy may design jobs to be very structured and heavily supervised.

• Poor motivation among workers often results from little or no control over the work environment.

10B. How are jobs and motivation related?

• High motivation with more satisfaction and higher productivity tend to result if managers– (a) encourage workers to participate in

decision making,

– (b) give employees problems to solve without solving them for the employees,

– (c) teach workers more than one skill,

Higher motivation and productivity if…

– (d) give individual responsibility,

– (e) give public recognition, not just money as rewards,

– (f) allow workers to set and achieve clear goals.

10C. How are jobs and motivation related?

• Three characteristics of effective worker goals:

• (a) specific and concrete;

• (b) personally meaningful;

• (c) management supports goal setting, rewards goal achievement, and gives encouragement after failure.

11A. How does Maslow's motivational hierarchy explain which motives guide a

person's behavior?• Proposed 5 basic classes of need or motives

arranged in a hierarchy.  • (a)biological - food, water, air, activity, and

sleep;

• (b)safety - security and being safe and cared for;

• (c) belongingness and love - being part of a social group and giving and receiving affection;

Maslow’s motivation hierarchy…

• (d) esteem - being respected as a useful and honorable person;

• (e) self-actualization - developing your personal potential and being the "best that you can be;" In general, more basic needs are satisfied first.

11B. How does Maslow's motivational hierarchy explain which motives guide a

person's behavior?

• Theory may be too simplistic.

• For example, some people will starve themselves in order to achieve a higher level goal.

12A. How are motivational conflicts associated with stress?

• In general, conflict among motives  can be source of distress and discomfort.

• Four types of conflict:

• (a) approach-approach - choosing between two desirable goals;

• (b) approach-avoidance – when one activity has both positive and negative features;

Motivational conflict…

• (c) avoidance-avoidance - choosing between two  undesirable events or outcomes;

• (d)multiple approach-avoidance - when you are faced with 2 or more alternatives or outcomes, each of which having both pleasant and unpleasant characteristics.

• Last type is most difficult to resolve because of attributes of each options are difficult to compare.

12B. How are motivational conflicts associated with stress?

• Conflict is often associated with anxiety and other strong emotional states.

• Emotions can be very motivating.

• We often act in ways to gain happiness and pleasure as well as to avoid anxiety, anger, or sadness.

13A. What are aspects of defining and describing emotion?

• A) experiences rather than overt behaviors or specific thoughts;

• result is often mixed and contradictory; difficult to assign labels.

• B)have value or valence in the sense of positive or negative experience;

• can change motivation. • C) passions not actions; • happen to a person or take them by surprise; • not something you decide to experience.

13B. What are aspects of defining and describing emotion?

• D) influenced by interpretation; emotions develop as a part of a situation;

• triggered by thinking self and experienced as happening to the self;

• E) accompanied by physical or bodily response; • partly reflex and partly learned; • internal or visceral responses are reflexive;

• F) vary in intensity

• from quiet to furious;

• from mild to strong;

• importance shown in people who show low emotional intensity and who don’t get upset or experience much emotional pleasure.

14A. What are aspects of how emotion is related to the autonomic nervous system?

• autonomic nervous system is part of the peripheral nervous system carries information between the brain and organs and muscles, with the exception of the striated muscles;

• modulates changes in ongoing activities of organs, both exciting and relaxing;

• coordinates organ functioning to meet needs of whole organism and prepares the body to respond;

14B. What are aspects of how emotion is related to the autonomic nervous system?

• two divisions of the ANS are the sympathetic and parasympathetic;

• sympathetic prepares vigorous activity and produces increased heart rate and blood pressure, rapid or irregular breathing, dilated pupils, perspiration, dry mouth, increased blood sugar, goose bumps, trembling;

• parasympathetic system influences protection, nourishment, and growth;

• increases digestive activity and movement in the intestinal tract.

• contributes to relaxation and growth

15A. What are aspects of how lie detectors or polygraph machines detect lying?

• polygraph consists of instruments that record  several types of physiological activity;

• to detect lying, record physiological activity controlled by the sympathetic nervous system, including heart rate, respiration, and skin resistance;

• based on idea that emotional responses accompany lying, such as feeling guilty and fearing exposure;

15B. What are aspects of how lie detectors or polygraph machines detect lying?

• ask relevant and control questions;

• expect stronger emotional response  to relevant questions;

• no evidence that polygraph responses predict behavior;

• accurate, reliable results are hard to get.

16A. How does the James-Lange theory explain emotion?

• Based on idea we feel emotions because of specific physiological responses.

• For example, we feel afraid because we run. • Sequence of events: perception of stimulus

affects cerebral cortex, reflex response in muscle, skin, viscera/smooth muscles, conscious experience of emotion.

16B. How does the James-Lange theory explain emotion?

• Belief that reflexive physical response precedes emotional experience.

• Conscious experience comes later. • May be one reason why we have difficulty

knowing true feelings. • We may interpret feelings from physical

responses

17A. How does the Cannon-Bard theory explain emotion?

• Experience of emotion originates in brain/CNS.

• Subconscious experience in the brain results in simultaneous stimulation of ANS and the cerebral (conscious) cortex.

• Interpretation of emotion results from signals from inside the brain.

17B. How does the Cannon-Bard theory explain emotion?

• Evidence for C-B theory: emotion occurs by activating specific parts of the CNS;

• different parts of the CNS may be activated for different emotions (pain and pleasure centers) and different aspects of total emotional experience.

18A. How does the Schachter-Singer theory explain emotion?

• Related to idea of how interpretation affects emotional experience.

• Reflects a combination of James-Lange and Cannon-Bard.

• Agrees with J-L that emotional experience results from perceiving physiological response feedback.

• Agrees with C-B that physiological response alone is not different enough to reflect subtle emotional experience.

18B. How does the Schachter-Singer theory explain emotion?

• Proposes that emotions result from both physiological response feedback and cognitive appraisal.

• Cognitive interpretation has two influences:

• (a) perception of stimulus and

• (b) identification of ANS response.

19A. What is transfer of excitation?

• Physiological  arousal can be attributed to emotion and can intensify  emotional experience regardless of arousal source.

• Transferred excitation: when arousal from experience carries over to another independent or unrelated situation. 

• Based on idea that we remain aroused longer than we think (increased blood pressure and respiration at subconscious level).

• Transfer occurs when overt arousal symptoms have subsided and sympathetic nervous system is still active.

19B. What is transfer of excitation?

• Example: if activated by exercise and feel calm, is easy to attribute arousal to emotion such as attraction.

• Transfer especially likely when excitement from a non-emotional source is similar to arousal associated with a particular emotion.

• Arousal from one emotion then intensifies the second emotion.

• For example, arousal from fear or anger can enhance sexual feelings.

20A. What conclusions can be made concerning the relationship between emotion and autonomic nervous

system responses?

• Both physical or ANS response and cognitive interpretation of responses influence emotional experience.

• There seems to be direct experience of emotion in the CNS, aside from ANS arousal.

• Emotion is likely in both heart (ANS) and head (cerebral cortex or CNS).

20B. What conclusions can be made concerning the relationship between emotion and autonomic nervous

system responses?

• No resolution of which emotional component, if either is primary or more important.

21A. What are aspects of how we communicate emotion?

• Innate expression of emotion refers to idea that how we express emotion is influenced by heredity.

• Darwin believed facial expressions to be universal and biologically determined.

• Two types of evidence support Darwin’s ideas: • (a) from infants who show unlearned facial

expression of emotion, including blind babies and those with normal vision.

• (b) for basic emotions, people of all cultures show similar facial responses to similar emotional stimuli.

21B. What are aspects of how we communicate emotion?

• Communicative value of emotional expressions depends on context;

• Social referencing refers to uncertain situations in which other individuals provide a reference or guide that decreases uncertainty as how to respond.

• Infants depend on adults  emotional expressions, such as in the “visual cliff”.

21C. What are aspects of how we communicate emotion?

• Communication through emotional facial expression may explain why some behaviors are considered biologically "wired-in"  such as in babies' fear of strangers.

• Emotional culture includes rules governing which emotional are acceptable in which situations and which emotions  expressions are not acceptable.

• These classifications vary from culture to culture, across time in a single culture, and within an individuals lifetime.

22A. What are explanations of how we express emotion?

• Relationship between the brain hemispheres may be important in suppressing emotion.

• Communication between brain hemispheres may influence this ability.

• Evidence from infants: infants do not inhibit emotional expression and also have less well-developed functional connections between the hemispheres.

• Until age 19 or 20, corpus callosum is not fully myelinated or covered with fatty sheath that speeds neural activity.

• Differences in hemispheric communication may be partly responsible for differences in ability to suppress emotional expression.

22B. What are explanations of how we express emotion?

• Possibly suppression of negative emotion related to stopping communication between right hemisphere where negative emotions are generated and verbal areas in left hemisphere.

• People who suppress emotion ANS response may experience disconnection from ability to report emotions.

• The ANS activity increases but the person reports little or no emotion.

23A. How are psychological disorders related to the emotion of fear?

• Panic Disorder = experience of intense fear in situation where there is nothing to be afraid of.

• 3 components: • (a) panic attack - physical symptoms, including

heart rate, breathing, blood pressure, body temperature.

• (b) chronic anxiety about whether an attack will occur; involves emotions and thoughts.

• (c) avoidance behaviors aimed at preventing future attacks.

23B. How are psychological disorders related to the emotion of fear?

• Proposal: panic disorder patients have hyper-sensitive brainstem mechanisms regulating ANS response contributing to fear;

• other information from PETT scans: before panic attacks, increased abnormal symmetry of blood flow (more to right hemisphere);

• during panic attack, brain activity similar to that of people with anxiety anticipating painful experience.

• Appearance of unexplained physiological arousal may set the stage for panic.

23C. How are psychological disorders related to the emotion of fear?

• Cognitive interpretation of symptoms can determine whether an attack develops.

• Research shows that people who experience the illusion of control are less likely to experience full panic attack.

• Conclusion: process of interpreting and coping with symptoms gives cognitive aspects  important role in controlling panic disorders.

Chapter 13

• Health, Stress and Coping

1A. What is stress?

• Definition - process of adjusting to or dealing with situations that disrupt or threaten your physical or psychological well-being and functioning.

• In general, involves relationships between people and the environment.

• Specifically involves relationship between stressors, stress responses, and mediating factors.

Stress components…

• Stressors = events or situations that we respond  or react to.

• Stress responses = physical, psychological, and behavioral responses to stressors.

• Mediating factors  = circumstances and personal characteristics;

• specifically, predictability, control, social support, and coping strategies.

2A. What are 6 major psychosocial stressors and examples of each?

• (a)frustration - obstacle standing between you and your goals;

• being unable to earn a decent living, failing to establish a close and loving relationship.

• (b)pressure - require you to do too much in too little time;

• preparing a dinner for 20 on one day's notice;

• writing 2 complete essay question responses in 10 minutes.

• (c)boredom or under-stimulation - opposite of pressure;

• lecture or activity not interesting to you

• solitary confinement;

• guard duty in a remote location;

• lack of interest in what is going on around you.

2B. What are 6 major psychosocial stressors and examples of each?

• (d) trauma - shocking physical or psychological or emotional experience; examples - rape, military combat, severe storm, fire, torture.

• (e) conflict - having to make a choice between

• two attractive options,

• two unattractive options,

• one attractive and one unattractive option

• several options each with both attractive and unattractive characteristics,

• (f)change –

• examples : divorce, unemployment, and illness.

3. How is stress commonly measured?

• Related to number of life changes we have experienced.

• Based on assumption that any and all change  (both positive and negative) can be stressful and distressing.

• People are asked to rate a list of change-related stressors in terms of life-change units (amount of change and demand for adjustment a stressor introduces).

4. What is the general adaptation syndrome?

• G.A.S. = a sequence of physical responses triggered in response to any stressor.

• Has three stages: • --(a)alarm reaction - some version of the

flight or fight syndrome. • Example - may be change in heart rate, blood

pressure, respiration, or body temperature.

• --(b)resistance - body settles in to resist the stressor on a long-term basis.

• Slower drain on body resources than alarm reaction.

• Body still working very hard to produce emergency energy.

• Uses up body's reserves of adaptive energy.

• --(c) Exhaustion - body no longer able to resist the stressor(s).

• Associated with signs of physical wear and tear.

• Can result in illness such as heart disease, high blood pressure, arthritis, colds, flu.

• May end in death.

5A. What are 2 psychological stress responses?

• (a) emotional - may be anxiety, anger, aggression;

• --usually occurs in response to identifiable situations;

• --usually subsides when stressors removed; • --may be associated with generalized anxiety

if constant emotional arousal becomes routine.

• (b) cognitive - decreased ability to concentrate, think clearly, remember accurately;

• --For example, catastrophizing or dwelling on and overemphasizing the potential negative consequences of unpleasant events;

• --interfering with thinking and may intensify emotional  and physical responses.

5B. What are 2 psychological stress responses?

• Defense mechanisms – • --denial or saying to yourself that it's not

happening;

• --repression/forgetting;

• --rationalization or finding a reason;

Defense mechanisms…

• --intellectualization or emotional detachment;

• --displacement or finding a safe target to express emotion;

• --projection or attributing one's own undesirable  qualities to another person.

6. What are behavioral stress responses?

• changes in how people look, act, or talk in response to stressors;

• examples: facial expressions, voice tone, trembling, jumpiness, posture;

• observable responses that allow us to express and communicate how we are feeling and thinking.

7. How do predictability and control influence the experience of stress?

• predictable stressors have lower impact, especially if they don’t last very long.

• Controlled stressors have lower impact than uncontrolled stressors;

• Believing you have little or no control may increase the unpleasant impact of stressors.

8A. How do social support and coping skills influence the experience of stress?

• (a)social support - resources provided by other people, friends, and social contacts;

• --can take different forms, including giving assistance and buffering impact;

• --helps us to feel less anxious and more in control;

• --ability to cope sometimes influences quality of social support received; too much support can be as bad as too little;

8B. How do social support and coping skills influence the experience of stress?

• (b) coping skills represent ability to solve problems and deal with stressors;

• 3 categories  • --(1)appraisal-focused in which we think

about stressors as challenges rather than threats;

• ----planning what to do;

• --(2) problem-focused in which we change or eliminate the stressor by seeking help or using planning strategies;

• ----use in situations you can change or have an effect;

• --(3) emotion-focused in which we control negative emotions by using calm thoughts or emotional detachment;

• ----does nothing to solve the problem(s); use in situations you can't change immediately.

9A. How is stress related to physical illness?

• Early research has identified various diseases associated with excessive arousal of the sympathetic nervous system.

• Examples include asthma, high blood pressure, ulcers, migraine headaches.

• Recent research has established a connection between stress and any physical illness.

• --Example is Alzheimer's Disease, associated with severe memory loss;

• --too much stress may result in premature death of brain cells in areas of brain responsible for memory.

9B. How is stress related to physical illness?

• Stress also associated with coronary heart disease.

• Type A behavior (intensely competitive, aggressive, impatient, hostile, nonstop worker;

• need to control events and the environment.) • Stress also associated with cancer risk.

10A. What are steps in developing a plan to cope with stress?

• (a)systematic assessment of the problem –• -- identify the source of the stress; • --list events and situations containing conflict

and change. • --note physical and psychological effects of

stress, including headache, lack of concentration, excessive substance use.

• (b) select appropriate goals –

• --decide whether to eliminate stressors or change your response to them;

• (c)planning –

• --list specific steps of actions to take.

10B. What are steps in developing a plan to cope with

stress? • (d) action – • --put plans into action, using stress coping

strategies.

• (e) evaluation –

• --determine changes resulting from stress-coping methods and decide what worked and what didn't-t.

• (f) adjustment –

• --change coping methods and strategies to improve results if necessary.

11A. What are 3 type of stress coping strategies and examples of each type?

• (a) cognitive strategies – • --changing how you interpret stressors; • --help people think more calmly, rationally and

constructively under stress; • --cognitive restructuring or substituting more

effective thought patterns for catastrophic thinking;

• --results in lower threat and disruption potential of stressors.

11B. What are 3 type of stress coping strategies and examples of each type?

• (b) behavioral – • --rearranging the environment to minimize

impact of stressors; • --one example is more effective time

management; • --keep track of how you use your time for a

week. • --start a time management plan;

• --shows you relative amounts of free time and planned time;

• --can help control catastrophic thinking;

• --gives visual reassurance;

• --another example is paying attention to total stressor load and acting to restrict it by using a rational coping plan rather than impulsive decision making.

11C. What are 3 type of stress coping strategies and examples of each type?

• (c) physical strategies – • --directly change physiological responses

before, during, or after encountering stressor(s); • --Can be chemical or nonchemical. • ----Chemical strategies may involve prescribed

or nonprescribed substances; • ----

appropriate in some cases;

• ----may provide temporary relief;

• ----long-term use can lead to other problems such as addiction, family or marital difficulties;

• ----can result in attributing coping ability to the drug or substance and not your own skills and abilities.

D11. What are 3 type of stress coping strategies and examples of each type?

• Non-chemical coping includes

• progressive muscles relaxation,

• physical exercise,

• and biofeedback.

CHAPTER 14

PERSONALITY

1A. WHAT IS PERSONALITY AND HOW CAN WE STUDY IT?

• *lasting pattern of psychological and behavioral characteristics used to compare and contrast one person with another.

• *three methods to study personality:

• --a. observation - watching the behavior of individuals  

• -- b. interview - series of questions about how you think, feel, and act;

• ----may refer to past, present, or future; can be changed to fit special needs of individuals.

• ----may use open-ended or closed-ended questions

1B. WHAT IS PERSONALITY AND HOW CAN WE STUDY IT?

• --c. tests - standardized and economical;

• ----should meet standards of reliability and validity;

• ----objective/written and contains specific questions with predetermined response choices;

• examples: MBTI, 16PF, MMPI

• ----projective/more unstructured;

• ----wide range of interpretations and responses;

• scoring may be more unreliable than for objective tests.

• examples: Rorschach, TAT

2A. WHAT IS THE PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH TO STUDYING PERSONALITY?

• psychic determinism - personality depends more on emotional and cognitive factors than biological factors or external events;

• people usually aren't aware of why they think, act, or feel in certain ways;

• personality is mostly unconsciously controlled.

2B. WHAT IS THE PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH TO STUDYING PERSONALITY?

• methods – • free association=saying whatever comes to your mind;

reveals unconscious material.

• psychoanalysis=general name for Freud's theory of personality, research methods and therapy techniques.

2C. WHAT IS THE PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH TO STUDYING PERSONALITY?

• *structure of personality –

• 3 major components;

• ID=all basic drives, needs, impulses, motives; seeks

• immediate satisfaction of needs and wants; • operates on the pleasure principle;

• EGO=develops from id;• as we learn to cope with reality;• responsible for organizing strategies to

get what we want; • operates according to the reality principle

(compromises between demands of id and restrictions of the outside world;

• SUPEREGO=develops as we learn and adopt rules  of the external world;

• ego ideal: pressure to conform to standards of ideal behavior;

• includes conscience (shoulds and should nots;

• operates according to the morality principle (knowing the difference between right and wrong).

2D. WHAT IS THE PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH TO STUDYING PERSONALITY?

• conflicts and defenses - conflict results from interaction among id, ego, and superego;

• most of what is unconscious is frightening or socially unacceptable so we try to avoid awareness of it;

• we experience anxiety or fear when unconscious material threatens to become conscious;

2E. WHAT IS THE PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH TO STUDYING PERSONALITY?

• anxiety may be unhealthy:

• feeling afraid when there is actually nothing to fear or

• Anxiety may be moral:

• experienced when feel guilty about behavior forbidden by the superego;

2E. WHAT IS THE PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH TO STUDYING PERSONALITY?

• ego resolves conflicts in several ways:

• including realistic actions

• or defense mechanisms

3. HOW DOES THE INTERPERSONAL CIRCLE RELATE TO STUDYING AND DESCRIBING PERSONALITY?

• consists of 2 main dimensions concerning how we act with other people;

• power: dominance vs. submission; • affiliation: love vs. hate;

• all behavior is a result of some combination of high or low power and high or low affiliation;

• predicts mild and extreme versions of different types of behavior;

3B. HOW DOES THE INTERPERSONAL CIRCLE RELATE TO STUDYING AND DESCRIBING PERSONALITY?

• results in 8 styles of behavior: • managerial/autocratic vs

self-effacing/masochistic, • responsible/hypernomal vs rebellious/distrustful,

• cooperative/overconventional vs aggressive/sadistic,

• docile/dependent vs competitive/narcissistic;

• operates according to the rule of COMPLEMENTARITY: people encourage behavior in others, compatible to the behavior offered

• dominant behavior encourages submissive behavior;

• hate encourages hate, while love encourages love.

4. WHAT IS THE DISPOSITIONAL APPROACH TO STUDYING

PERSONALITY?

• based on descriptive categories or labels for personality;

• may refer to types, traits, factors or needs;

• 3 assumptions: • 1)everyone has stable disposition/tendency

to think, act, feel in certain ways; • 2) dispositions appear in different situations

and explain why people act predictably in certain situations;

• 3) each person has a different set of dispositions of varying strengths.

4. WHAT IS THE DISPOSITIONAL APPROACH TO STUDYING PERSONALITY?

• types - category or group; • applies in all situations; • for example shy vs outgoing, feeling vs thinking

• traits - characteristics you possess in certain amounts or strengths

4A. WHAT IS THE DISPOSITIONAL APPROACH TO STUDYING PERSONALITY?

• factors - collections/groups of traits; • psychoticism: cruelty, coldness, hostility,

oddness, rejects social customs;

• extraversion: social, outgoing, likes parties, takes risks, likes excitement;

• introversion: quiet, thoughtful, reserved, prefers to be alone, avoids excitement;

•

• emotional stability: calm, even-tempered, relaxed; emotional instability: moody, restless, easily worried or anxious;

4A. WHAT IS THE DISPOSITIONAL APPROACH TO STUDYING PERSONALITY?

• openness: • active imagination, • sensitive to sights and sounds, • intellectually curious, • receptive to different experiences

• openness…

• contrasts with being conventional,

• down to earth,

• narrow interests,

• non-artistic,

• uncreative;

• conscientiousness:

• persistent in accomplishing valued tasks,

• reliable,

• dependable vs lax,

• aimless,

• unreliable.

5A. WHAT IS THE BEHAVIORAL APPROACH TO STUDYING PERSONALITY?

• personality is made up of behavior patterns;

• specific behavior is a sample;

• personality is determined by learning experiences, especially in interpersonal interactions;

• consistent history results in stable behavior patterns;

• inconsistent behaviors explained by specific situational experiences;

5B. WHAT IS THE BEHAVIORAL APPROACH TO STUDYING PERSONALITY?

• 2 main versions of behavioral approach:• operant: emphasizes influences of reward and

punishment from external environment;

• cognitive: involves social learning;

• includes learned thoughts, emotions, and behaviors;

• related to self-efficacy

• learned expectations of success (belief that person can perform behavior regardless of past failures and current obstacles.

6A. WHAT IS THE PHENOMENOLOGICAL APPROACH TO STUDYING PERSONALITY?

• belief that the specific way each individual perceives and interprets the world influences personality and guides behavior; 

• focuses on mental qualities of humans

(consciousness, creativity, self-awareness, planning, decision-making, responsibility);

• also called humanistic view;

• emphasizes how the individual actively constructs his own world rather than being a passive carrier of traits;

• main human motivation is toward self-actualization and personal growth;

6B. WHAT IS THE PHENOMENOLOGICAL APPROACH TO STUDYING PERSONALITY?

• also called humanistic view;

• emphasizes how the individual actively constructs his own world rather than being a passive carrier of traits;

• main human motivation is toward self-actualization and personal growth;

6C. WHAT IS THE PHENOMENOLOGICAL APPROACH TO STUDYING PERSONALITY?

• CARL ROGERS - developed idea of self-concept (part of individual's experience identified as "i" or "me";

• personality is expression of self-actualizing tendency;

• importance of unconditional positive regard for healthy development of personality.

6D. WHAT IS THE PHENOMENOLOGICAL APPROACH TO STUDYING PERSONALITY?

• proposed a hierarchy of needs;

• highest need is self-actualization;

• lower needs (physiological survival, safety, love/belonging, recognition) distract us from self-actualization

7A. HOW ARE THE CHARACTERISTICS OF BEING STRESS-PRONE OR DISEASE-PRONE RELATED TO

PERSONALITY?

• certain personality characteristics may protect a person from stress or illness;

• HARDY PERSONALITY =

• commitment: strong involvement in personal values and goals;

• control: belief in own ability to cope with problems;

• challenge: perceive problems as opportunities rather than threats;

7B. HOW ARE THE CHARACTERISTICS OF BEING STRESS-PRONE OR

DISEASE-PRONE RELATED TO PERSONALITY?

• related to self-efficacy (dispositional optimism and persistent long term belief that most events will turn out well;

• health and adjustment related to whether person is positive about self-efficacy;

• may experience better psychological and physical health if slightly exaggerate  personal power, blame outcomes on external events, and deny own faults;

7C. HOW ARE THE CHARACTERISTICS OF BEING STRESS-PRONE OR

DISEASE-PRONE RELATED TO PERSONALITY?

• some characteristics seem related to being vulnerable to illness:

• negative feelings: cynicism, perceived helplessness, frustration, lack of control;

• depression/anxiety/hostility: related to asthma, headaches, arthritis, ulcers;

• toxic type-a behavior: related to coronary heart disease, negative emotions, difficulty expressing negative feelings

• contrast with charismatic type-a:

• fast-moving,

• involved with work,

• internal locus of control,

• emotionally expressive,

• high-achieving outcomes,

• focused and motivated for success.

IN CONCLUSION

ARE THERE ANY QUESTIONS ABOUT ANYTHING WE HAVE

DISCUSSED ?