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Chapter 1
A Brief History of Microbiology
Azeem Ahmad, Ph.DDes Moines Area Community College
(DMACC-URBAN)
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Learning Objectives
• Invisible world• Six classes of microorganisms• Prokaryotes, Archaea and Eukaryotes• Viruses• Spontaneous generation• Koch postulates• Gram stain• Infection and disease• Genetics• Modern microbiology
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The Early Years of Microbiology
• What Does Life Really Look Like?– Antoni van Leeuwenhoek (Dutch)
– Began making and using simple microscopes– Often made a new microscope for each specimen– Examined water and visualized tiny animals, fungi,
algae, and single-celled protozoa: “animalcules”
– By end of 19th century, these organisms were called microorganisms
© 2012 Pearson Education Inc.
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Figure 1.2 Reproduction of Leeuwenhoek’s microscope
Specimen holderLens
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Figure 1.3 The microbial world
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The Early Years of Microbiology
• How Can Microbes Be Classified?– Carolus Linnaeus developed taxonomic system
for grouping similar organisms together– Leeuwenhoek’s microorganisms grouped into six
categories: – Bacteria– Archaea– Fungi– Protozoa– Algae– Small multicellular animals
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The Early Years of Microbiology
• Bacteria and Archaea– Unicellular and lack nuclei– Much smaller than eukaryotes– Found everywhere there is sufficient
moisture– Reproduce asexually– Two kinds
– Bacteria – cell walls contain peptidoglycan– Archaea – cell walls composed of polymers
other than peptidoglycan
© 2012 Pearson Education Inc.
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Figure 1.4 Cells of the bacterium Streptococcus
Nucleus ofeukaryotic cheek cell
Prokaryoticbacterial cells
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The Early Years of Microbiology
• Fungi– Eukaryotic (have membrane-bound nucleus)– Obtain food from other organisms– Possess cell walls– Include
– Molds – multicellular; grow as long filaments; reproduce by sexual and asexual spores
– Yeasts – unicellular; reproduce by budding or sexual spores
© 2012 Pearson Education Inc.
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Figure 1.5 Fungi-overview
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The Early Years of Microbiology
• Protozoa– Single-celled eukaryotes– Similar to animals in nutrient needs and cellular
structure– Live freely in water; some live in animal hosts– Asexual (most) and sexual reproduction– Most are capable of locomotion by
– Pseudopodia – Cilia – Flagella
© 2012 Pearson Education Inc.
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Figure 1.6 Locomotive structures of protozoa-overview
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The Early Years of Microbiology
• Algae– Unicellular or multicellular
– Photosynthetic
– Simple reproductive structures
– Categorized on the basis of pigmentation, storage products, and composition of cell wall
© 2012 Pearson Education Inc.
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Figure 1.7 Algae-overview
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Figure 1.9 Viruses infecting a bacterium
Virus
Bacterium
Virusesassemblinginside cell
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The Golden Age of Microbiology
• Scientists searched for answers to four questions
– Is spontaneous generation of microbial life possible?
– What causes fermentation?
– What causes disease?
– How can we prevent infection and disease?
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The Golden Age of Microbiology
• Some thought living things arose from three processes
– Asexual reproduction
– Sexual reproduction
– Nonliving matter
• Aristotle proposed spontaneous generation
– Living things can arise from nonliving matter
© 2012 Pearson Education Inc.
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The Golden Age of Microbiology
• Pasteur’s Experiments– When the “swan-necked” flasks remained
upright, no microbial growth appeared
– When the flask was tilted, dust from the bend in the neck seeped back into the flask and made the infusion cloudy with microbes within a day
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Figure 1.11 Louis Pasteur
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Figure 1.12 Pasteur’s experiments with “swan-necked” flasks
Steam escapesfrom open endof flask.
Infusionis heated.
Infusion sits;no microbes appear.
Months
Air moves inand out of flask.
Infusion remainssterile indefinitely.
Dust fromair settlesin bend.
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The Golden Age of Microbiology
• The Scientific Method– Spontaneous generation debate led in part to
scientific method– Observation leads to question– Question generates hypothesis– Hypothesis is tested through experiment(s)– Results prove or disprove hypothesis
– Accepted hypothesis leads to theory/law– Reject or modify hypothesis
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Figure 1.13 The scientific method
Observations
Question
Hypothesis
Repeat
Experiment,includingcontrol groups
Modifiedhypothesis
Observations
Experimentaldata supporthypothesis
Experimentaldata do notsupporthypothesis
Accepthypothesis
Rejecthypothesis
Modifyhypothesis
Theoryor law
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Figure 1.14 Pasteur's application of the scientific method
Observation:
Hypothesis Experiment Observation Conclusion
Fermentinggrape juice
Microscopic analysisshows juice containsyeasts and bacteria.
Day 1: Flasks of grapejuice are heated sufficientlyto kill all microbes.
Day 2
I. Spontaneousfermentationoccurs.
II. Air fermentsgrape juice.
III. Bacteria fermentgrape juiceinto alcohol.
IV. Yeasts fermentgrape juiceinto alcohol.
Juice in flask is inoculated withyeast and sealed.
Juice in flask is inoculated withbacteria and sealed.
Flask remainsopen to airvia curved neck.
Flask is sealed.
No fermentation;juice remainsfree of microbes
No fermentation;juice remainsfree of microbes
Bacteria reproduce;acids are produced.
Yeasts reproduce;alcohol is produced.
Reject hypothesis I.
Reject hypothesis II.
Modify hypothesis III; bacteria fermentgrape juice intoacids.
Accept hypothesis IV; yeasts fermentgrape juice intoalcohol.
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Table 1.1 Some Industrial Uses of Microbes
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The Golden Age of Microbiology
• What Causes Disease?– Pasteur developed germ theory of disease
– Robert Koch studied causative agents of disease
– Anthrax– Examined colonies of microorganisms
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Figure 1.15 Robert Koch
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The Golden Age of Microbiology
• Koch’s Contributions– Simple staining techniques– First photomicrograph of bacteria– First photomicrograph of bacteria in diseased
tissue– Techniques for estimating CFU/ml– Use of steam to sterilize media– Use of Petri dishes– Techniques to transfer bacteria– Bacteria as distinct species
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Figure 1.16 Bacterial colonies on agar
Bacterium 1
Bacterium 2
Bacterium 3
Bacterium 4
Bacterium 5
Bacterium 6 Bacterium 7Bacterium 8
Bacterium 9
Bacterium 10
Bacterium 11
Bacterium 12
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The Golden Age of Microbiology
• Koch’s Postulates– Suspected causative agent must be found in
every case of the disease and be absent from healthy hosts
– Agent must be isolated and grown outside the host
– When agent is introduced into a healthy, susceptible host, the host must get the disease
– Same agent must be found in the diseased experimental host
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The Golden Age of Microbiology
• Gram’s Stain– Danish scientist Hans Christian Gram developed
more important staining technique than Koch’s in 1884
– Involves the applications of a series of dyes– Some microbes are left purple, now labeled
Gram-positive– Other microbes are left pink, now labeled Gram-
negative– Gram procedure used to separate into two
groups
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Figure 1.17 Results of Gram staining
Gram-positive Gram-negative
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Figure 1.19 Some scientific disciplines and applicationsBIOLOGISTS MODERN DISCIPLINES
Pre-1857
The Golden Age ofMicrobiology (1857–1907)
Leeuwenhoek
Linnaeus
SemmelweissSnow
Bacteriology (bacteria)Protozoology (protozoa)Mycology (fungi)Parasitology (protozoa andanimals)Phycology (algae)
Taxonomy
Infection controlEpidemiology
PasteurPasteurization
Industrial microbiology
Food and beverage technology
Buchner
Koch Koch’s postulates
Ivanowski
BeijerinckWinogradsky
Gram
ListerNightingale
Jennervon BehringKitasato
Ehrlich
Fleming
Microbial metabolismGeneticsGenetic engineering
Etiology
Virology
Environmental microbiologyEcological microbiology
Microbial morphology
Antiseptic medical techniquesHospital microbiology
SerologyImmunology
Chemotherapy
Pharmaceutical microbiology
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Table 1.3 Fields of Microbiology
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The Modern Age of Microbiology
• What Are the Basic Chemical Reactions of Life? – Biochemistry
– Began with Pasteur’s and Buchner’s works– Microbes used as model systems for biochemical
reactions– Practical applications
– Design of herbicides and pesticides
– Diagnosis of illness and monitoring responses to treatment
– Treatment of metabolic diseases
– Drug design
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The Modern Age of Microbiology
• How Do Genes Work?– Microbial genetics
– Molecular biology
– Recombinant DNA technology
– Gene therapy
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The Modern Age of Microbiology
• Microbial Genetics– Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty: genes are
contained in molecules of DNA
– Beadle and Tatum: a gene’s activity is related to protein function
– Translation of genetic information into protein explained
– Rates and mechanisms of genetic mutation investigated
– Control of genetic expression by cells described
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The Modern Age of Microbiology
• Molecular Biology– Explanation of cell function at the molecular level
– Pauling proposed that gene sequences could– Provide understanding of evolutionary
relationships/processes– Establish taxonomic categories– Identify microbes that have never been cultured
– Woese determined cells belong to bacteria, archaea, or eukaryotes
– Cat scratch disease caused by unculturable organism
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The Modern Age of Microbiology
• Recombinant DNA Technology– Genes in microbes, plants, and animals
manipulated for practical applications
– Production of human blood-clotting factor by E. coli to aid hemophiliacs
• Gene Therapy– Inserting a missing gene or repairing a defective
one in humans by inserting desired gene into host cells
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The Modern Age of Microbiology
• What Roles Do Microorganisms Play in the Environment?
– Bioremediation uses living bacteria, fungi, and algae to detoxify polluted environments
– Recycling of chemicals such as carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur
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The Modern Age of Microbiology
• How Do We Defend Against Disease?– Serology
– The study of blood serum– Blood contains chemicals and cells that fight
infection– Immunology
– The study of the body’s defense against specific pathogens
– Chemotherapy– Fleming discovered penicillin– Domagk discovered sulfa drugs
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Figure 1.20 Effects of penicillin on a bacterial “lawn” in a petri dish
Fungus colony(Penicillium)
Zone of inhibition
Bacterial colonies(Staphylococcus)
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The Modern Age of Microbiology
• What Will the Future Hold?– Microbiology is built on asking and answering
questions
– The more questions we answer, the more questions we have
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