DISTRIBUTED SYSTEMSPrinciples and ParadigmsSecond EditionANDREW S. TANENBAUMMAARTEN VAN STEEN

Chapter 7Consistency And Replication

Reasons for ReplicationData are replicated to increase the reliability of a system.Replication for performanceScaling in numbersScaling in geographical areaCaveatsConsistency issuesGain in performanceCost of increased bandwidth for maintaining replication

Data-centric Consistency ModelsFigure 7-1. The general organization of a logical data store, physically distributed and replicated across multiple processes.

Continuous Consistency (0)Conit = CONsistency UniTContinuous consistency rangesSpecify consistency practicallyOrder = number of uncommitted updatesStaleness = time since last updateNumeric = number of unseen updatesSpecify consistency semanticallyNumeric = Difference between local and committed valuesAbsolute (by |v-v'|)Relative (by |v-v'|/v)

Continuous Consistency (2)Figure 7-3. Choosing the appropriate granularity for a conit. (a) Two updates lead to update propagation.

Continuous Consistency (1)Figure 7-2. An example of keeping track of consistency deviations [adapted from (Yu and Vahdat, 2002)].Order = # uncommitted local updates; Numerical (#unseen remote updates, max dev. between remote tentative and local committed); gray = committedCommittedx=2y=0Committedx=0y=0tentativeDeviationx=0y=5Deviationx=6y=3ordernumerical

Continuous Consistency (3)Figure 7-3. Choosing the appropriate granularity for a conit. (b) No update propagation is needed (yet).Tradeoffs: high traffic, false sharing if conit too large; too stale, overhead too great if conit too small.

Access ConsistencyForms of access consistency Atomic Consistency Sequential Consistency Causal Consistency Processor ConsistencyNotation:Wi(x)a = Process i wrote object x with value aRi(x)a = Process i read object x with value a

Sequential Consistency (1)Figure 7-4. Behavior of two processes operating on the same data item. The horizontal axis is time.A sequential order satisfying the observationsR(x) NILW(x) aR(x) a

Sequential Consistency (2)A data store is sequentially consistent when:The result of any execution is the same as if the (read and write) operations by all processes on the data store were executed in some sequential order and the operations of each individual process appear in this sequence in the order specified by its program.

Sequential Consistency (3)Figure 7-5. (a) A sequentially consistent data store. (b) A data store that is not sequentially consistent.Forces W(x)a firstForces W(x)b first

Sequential Consistency (4)Figure 7-6. Three concurrently-executing processes.

Sequential Consistency (5)Figure 7-7. Four valid execution sequences for the processes of Fig. 7-6. The vertical axis is time.Initial values all 0P2P3001011101011010111111111P1P1P1P1P1P1P1P1P2P2P2P2P2P2P2P3P3P3P3P3P3P3Signature is output of processes in process ID order: P1, P2, P3

Causal Consistency (1)For a data store to be considered causally consistent, it is necessary that the store obeys the following condition:Writes that are potentially causally related must be seen by all processesin the same order. Concurrent writes may be seen in a different order on different machines.

Causal Consistency (2)Figure 7-8. This sequence is allowed with a causally-consistent store, but not with a sequentially consistent store.Causal relation elementInduced digraph is acyclic

Causal Consistency (3)Figure 7-9. (a) A violation of a causally-consistent store. W(x)a before W(x)b causallySees W(x)b before W(x)a

Causal Consistency (4)Figure 7-9. (b) A correct sequence of events in a causally-consistent store.W(x)a not causally related to W(x)b

Processor Consistency(1)For a data store to be considered processor consistent, it is necessary that the store obeys the following condition:Writes that are made by the same processor must be seen by all processesin the same order. Writes by different processes may be seen in a different order on different machines.

Processor Consistency (2)Figure 7-9. (a) A violation of a causally-consistent store, but which is processor consistent. W(x)a before W(x)b causallySees W(x)b before W(x)aOnly one write per processor, so trivially all processes see them in the same order as they were made on the writing processor

Processor Consistency (3)A violation of processor consistency. W(x)a before W(x)b on same processorP2 sees W(x)b before W(x)aP1:P2:W(x)aW(x)bR(x)bR(x)a

Grouping Operations (1)Necessary criteria for correct synchronization:An acquire access of a synchronization variable, not allowed to perform until all updates to guarded shared data have been performed with respect to that process.Before exclusive mode access to synchronization variable by process is allowed to perform with respect to that process, no other process may hold synchronization variable, not even in nonexclusive mode.After exclusive mode access to synchronization variable has been performed, any other process next nonexclusive mode access to that synchronization variable may not be performed until it has performed with respect to that variables owner.

Grouping Operations (1.5)Varieties of synchronization variable consistency:Weak consistency: sync(S) operation is not performed until all previous access to variables it protects are completed with respect to the caller; future operations on protected set are delayed (wrt caller) until sync done.Release consistency: Acquire(S) not performed until previous releases completed, access by caller to any variable in protection set delayed until acquire performed. Release(S) not performed until all access operations by caller on variable in protection set are done. Entry consistency: Acquire and release are on implicit, per-object locks. Access is exclusive while lock held, and acquire forces all previous accesses to complete first

Grouping Operations (2)Figure 7-10. A valid event sequence for entry consistency.Waiting for operation to complete

Eventual ConsistencyFigure 7-11. The principle of a mobile user accessing different replicas of a distributed database.

Monotonic Reads (1)A data store is said to provide monotonic-read consistency if the following condition holds:

If a process reads the value of a data item x any successive read operation on x by that process will always return that same value or a more recent value.

Monotonic Reads (1.5)Notation:xi[t] = value of object x at store Li at time tWS(xi[t]) = set of writes to object x at store Li at time tWS(xi[t];xj[t']) = writes to object x at store Li at time t have been applied at store Li before writes to object x at store Li at time t'(t may be omitted if clear from context)

Monotonic Reads (2)Figure 7-12. The read operations performed by a single process P at two different local copies of the same data store. (a) A monotonic-read consistent data store. Operations of WS(x1) performed at L2 before those of WS(x2)

Monotonic Reads (3)Figure 7-12. The read operations performed by a single process P at two different local copies of the same data store. (b) A data store that does not provide monotonic reads.Operations of WS(x1) not performed at L2 before those of WS(x2)

Monotonic Writes (1)In a monotonic-write consistent store, the followingcondition holds:A write operation by a process on a data item x is completed before any successive write operation on x by the same process.

Monotonic Writes (2)Figure 7-13. The write operations performed by a single process P at two different local copies of the same data store. (a) A monotonic-write consistent data store. Operations of WS(x1) performed at L2 before write of x at L2, W(x2)

Monotonic Writes (2)Figure 7-13. The write operations performed by a single process P at two different local copies of the same data store. (a) A monotonic-write consistent data store. Operations of WS(x1) performed at L2 before write of x at L2, W(x2)

Monotonic Writes (3)Figure 7-13. The write operations performed by a single process P at two different local copies of the same data store. (b) A data store that does not provide monotonic-write consistency.Write of x at L1, W(x1), not performed at L2 before write of x at L2

Read Your Writes (1)A data store is said to provide read-your-writes consistency, if the following condition holds:The effect of a write operation by a process on data item x will always be seen by a successive read operation on x by the same process.

Read Your Writes (2)Figure 7-14. (a) A data store that provides read-your-writes consistency. Operations of WS(x1) performed at L2 before those of WS(x2), and subsequent read at L2, R(x2)

Read Your Writes (3)Figure 7-14. (b) A data store that does not.Operations of WS(x1) not performed at L2

Writes Follow Reads (1)A data store is said to provide writes-follow-reads consistency, if the following holds:A write operation by a process on a data item x following a previous read operation on x by the same process is guaranteed to take place on the same or a more recent value of x that was read.

Writes Follow Reads (2)Figure 7-15. (a) A writes-follow-reads consistent data store. More recent value of x

Writes Follow Reads (3)Figure 7-15. (b) A data store that does not provide writes-follow-reads consistency.Value of x read at L2 does not reflect update at L1

Replica-Server Placement(0)Big issues:How many replicas Where to locate replicasReplica-server placement:Client-driven incrementalAS-based cells, demand-drivenGeometric cells, cluster-driven

Replica-Server PlacementFigure 7-16. Choosing a proper cell size for server placement.Cluster spans two cellsTwo clusters in same cellOne cluster in one cell

Content Replication and PlacementFigure 7-17. The logical organization of different kinds of copies of a data store into three concentric rings.

Server-Initiated Replication (0)Big issues:When to replicate? Where?When to migrate? Where?When to delete? When NOT to delete?Threshold approachServer S knows nearest server P to client CServer S keeps local count of accesses to file F from clients nearest to PIf total count for F at S is below deletion threshold, then delete F unless last copyIf total count above replication threshold, then copyIf count for F from P > (total count for F at S)/2, migrate

Server-Initiated ReplicasFigure 7-18. Counting access requests from different clients.Closest serverto C1 and C2

Client-Initiated Replicationa.k.a. cachingImprove access timeFlush cache to avoid stale data, and ...... to make room for more relevant dataEspecially useful when cache serves multiple clients, and ...Clients exhibit correlated accesses

State versus OperationsPossibilities for what is to be propagated (applies to all replication types):Propagate only a notification of an updateCache invalidation/witnessTransfer data from one copy to anotherCache migrationPropagate the update operation to other copiesCache update

Pull versus Push ProtocolsFigure 7-19. A comparison between push-based and pull-based protocols in the case of multiple-client, single-server systems.What information is needed? What Actions? Results?

Remote-Write ProtocolsFigure 7-20. The principle of a primary-backup protocol.W6 tell client write completed (opt)W6, W5

Local-Write ProtocolsFigure 7-21. Primary-backup protocol in which the primary migrates to the process wanting to perform an update.W4 often notification, not updateSo R1.1 update.req, R1.2 update.cnfW1.5W1.5: tell primary

Quorum-based Protocols (0)N = total number of replicas; each keeps version numberR = read quorum size (number of replicas to probe when performing a read)W = write quorum size (number of replicas to probe when performing a write)Must ensure any two write sets intersect; and any read set intersects every write set to get latest version no.Hence, W > N/2 and R+W > NNote any W copies will do for a write, and any R copies for a read (not fixed quorums as in coterie DME)May have witnesses (keep meta-info only) witness can alert querier that new version # exists

Quorum-Based ProtocolsFigure 7-22. Three examples of the voting algorithm. (a) A correct choice of read and write set. (b) A choice that may lead to write-write conflicts. (c) A correct choice, known as ROWA (read one, write all).Issues work for read, write; fault tolerance. May have witnesses no copy, just ver.