Ch 25: History of life …as we understand it
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Transcript of Ch 25: History of life …as we understand it
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What does natural selection mean?Offspring w/in a varied population, whose characteristics
best adapt them to the environment are most likely to survive and reproduce
• more fit individuals produce more offspring than less fit individuals
How and why?•Over production of offspring•Limited natural resources•Heritable variations•Differential or unequal reproductive success
Ch. 23 review
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Ch. 24 -- What is a species? …and, Speciation?
• Species - Population (or group of populations) whose members can interbreed and produce fertile offspring
• Identified species are named & classified = Taxonomy– binomial scientific name:
• Homo sapiens Genus - species
• Macroevolution: origin of new species; increases diversity– How does this happen? What is
required?
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• Gene flow of alleles between populations of a particular species
• What would happen if gene flow was blocked?
• Variation continues, but within isolated populations– leads to divergence
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Barriers that lead to speciation• Reproductive barriers can prevent interbreeding of closely
related populations– Prezygotic = prevents fertilization
– Postzygotic = prevents development Fig. 24.3
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Barriers that lead to speciation• Reproductive barriers can prevent interbreeding of closely
related populations– Prezygotic = prevents fertilization– Postzygotic = prevents development
• Temporal isolation: difference of time, (day/night, seasons, etc)e.g. western skunks in fall;
eastern skunks in late wintere.g. purple sea urchins (late fall
to early spring) vs. white sea urchins (late spring to early fall)
Stronglyocentrotus purpuratus Lytichinus pictus
Spilogale gracilis
Spilogale putorius
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• Habitat isolation– Living in different places
(habitats) w/in general geographic region
e.g. herbivorous insects feeding on two different host plants
• Behavioral isolation– Different unique mating
rituals to attract mates of same species
e.g. many birds have courtship rituals before mating can commence
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• Mechanical isolation– Incompatible female and
male sex organs• aka “square peg into a round
hole” probleme.g. flower parts of one species
differs from another; pollinator only passes to one
• Gametic isolation– Fertilization success depends
on molecular recognition of cell membranes (gametes)
e.g. open (broadcast) spawning of aquatic species
e.g. windblown pollen of plants
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Postzygotic reproductive barriers• in the absence of pre-zygotic
isolation barriers…• Hybrid zygotes = fertilization of
two spp.• Natural blocks to continued
hybridization?– Zygotic mortality– Hybrid inviability: death in early
devpmnt– Hybrid sterility: mature
individuals, but sterile• female horse x male donkey =
sterile mule• Camel x llama = Cama• Lion x tiger = Liger• Horse x zebra = zebroid or zorse
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Geographic Barriers
• Allopatric speciation (allos = other, patra = fatherland)
– Mountain range emerged– Large lake subsides and splinters into
many smaller bodies of water– Baja peninsula and Isthmus of
Panama separates marine life on each side
– Grand canyon separated by Col. River
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Ch 25: History of life …as we understand it
• Conditions on early Earth made the origin of life possible– Chemical and physical processes on early Earth may have
produced very simple cells through a sequence of stages:• Abiotic synthesis of small organic molecules• Joining of these small molecules into macromolecules• Packaging of molecules into protocells
– Membraneous packets of chemicals
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Synthesis of Organic Compounds…
• Earth formed about 4.6 billion years ago, along with the rest of the solar system
• Bombardment of Earth by rocks and ice likely vaporized water and prevented seas from forming before 4.2 to 3.9 billion years ago
• Earth’s early atmosphere likely contained water vapor and chemicals released by volcanic eruptions (nitrogen, nitrogen oxides, carbon dioxide, methane, ammonia, hydrogen, hydrogen sulfide)
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Are the key building blocks of life hard to come by?
• Amino acids have been found in meteorites• RNA monomers have been produced “spontaneously” from
simple molecules• In water, lipids and other organic molecules can
“spontaneously” form vesicles with a lipid bilayer• Adding clay can increase the rate of vesicle formation• Vesicles exhibit simple reproduction and metabolism and
maintain an internal chemical environment– Resultprotocells
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The fossil record documents this history of life in geologic time
• Stromatolites – mineralized organics or prokaryotic cells layered (strata) from aquatic environment
Dimetrodon
Stromatolites
Fossilizedstromatolite
Coccosteuscuspidatus
4.5 cm
0.5 m
2.5 cm
Present
Rhomaleosaurus victorTiktaalik
Hallucigenia
Dickinsonia costata
Tappania
1 cm
1 m
100 mya
175200
300
375400
5005255656001,5003,500
270
Figure 25.4
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How Rocks and Fossils Are Dated
• Sedimentary strata reveal the relative ages of fossils
• The absolute ages of fossils can be determined by radiometric dating– A “parent” isotope decays to a “daughter”
isotope at a constant rate– Each isotope has a known half-life, the time
required for half the parent isotope to decay
Refer to: Keeping Time handout (see under Ch.25 ppt)
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Limitations of Carbon dating
• Radiocarbon dating can be used to date fossils up to 75,000 years old
• For older fossils, other isotopes can be used to date sedimentary rock layers above and below the fossil
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Geologic record is divided into the Archaean, the Proterozoic, and the Phanerozoic eons
The Phanerozoic encompasses multicellular eukaryotic life and is divided into three eras: Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic
The Cambrian explosion refers to the sudden appearance of a multitude of modern body designs (530 million years ago)first evidence of predator-prey interactions
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Appearance of selected animal groups in the fossil recordAnd, the colonization of land…
Fungi, plants, and animals began to colonize land about 500 million years ago
Vascular tissue in plants transports materials internally and appeared by about 420 million years ago
Plants and fungi today form mutually beneficial associations and likely colonized land together
Arthropods and tetrapods are the most widespread and diverse land animals
Tetrapods evolved from lobe-finned fishes around 365 million years ago
Sponges
Cnidarians
Echinoderms
Chordates
Brachiopods
Annelids
Molluscs
Arthropods
Ediacaran CambrianPROTEROZOIC PALEOZOIC
Time (millions of years ago)635 605 575 545 515 485 0
Figure 25.10
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The fossil record shows that most species that have ever lived are now extinct…
Further reading: the last parts of Ch 25 that includes Mass extinctions
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Ch 26: Phylogeny and Systematics
• What is meant by phylogeny?
• Evolutionary history of a species…– Based on common ancestry– Supported by shared
characteristics and genetics– Documented by fossils and
genetics
Eon > Era > Periods > Epochs
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Systematics?
= study of the organismal diversity of life
How do we make sense of all this diversity?
Organize it… using fossil, molecular, and genetic data to infer evolutionary relationships
Taxonomy & classification
* visually clear diagram, yet oversimplified
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Phylogenies show evolutionary relationships --Diversity of Life
Taxonomy is the ordered division and naming of organisms
Domain Kingdom Phylum Class Order
Family Genus
Species
Each group is nested within the level above
Broad or less specific
More specific
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Closely related species belong to the same genus, similar genera are included in a family, etc…Species that share the same structures, behaviors, etc, can interbreed and produce fertile offspring.
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• Grouped by shared characters (Evolutionary relationships)– Embryology– Reproduction strategies– Symmetry (body plan)– Morphology– Feeding mode– Interspecific interactions
(e.g. symbiosis)– Etc…
Systematists depict evolutionary relationships in branching phylogenetic trees
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• A phylogenetic tree represents a hypothesis about evolutionary relationships• Each branch point represents the divergence of two species• Sister taxa are groups that share an immediate common ancestor
Branch point:where lineages diverge
ANCESTRALLINEAGE
This branch pointrepresents thecommon ancestor oftaxa A–G.
This branch point forms apolytomy: an unresolvedpattern of divergence.
Sistertaxa
Basaltaxon
Taxon A
Taxon B
Taxon C
Taxon D
Taxon E
Taxon F
Taxon G
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• Cladistics groups organisms by common descent• A clade is a group of species that includes an
ancestral species and all its descendants– Terminal taxon share the most recent common
ancestor at the branch node
Which node occurs earliest in time?
Of the cladograms shown below, which one shows a different evolutionary history from the others?
B and C are sharing the most recent common ancestor, whereas in the others, C shares its most recent common ancestor with D
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Figure 26.11
TAXA Lancelet(outgroup)
Lamprey
Bass
Frog
Turtle
Leopard
Vertebralcolumn
(backbone)
Four walkinglegs
Hinged jaws
Amnion
Hair
Vertebralcolumn
Hinged jaws
Four walking legs
Amnion
Hair
(a) Character table (b) Phylogenetic tree
CHAR
ACT
ERS
Lanc
elet
(out
grou
p)
Lam
prey
Bass
Frog
Turt
le
Leop
ard
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
1
Try to create a cladogram from the given character table?
Lancelet Lamprey Bass Frog Turtle Leopard
Backbone
Hinged Jaws
Tetropod
Amnion
Hair
Phylum Chordata
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How has taxonomy evolved?
• It depends on the types and amount of data
• Historical 5 Kingdom system… until about 1970
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3 domains, many kingdoms