Cdc violencia juvenil brochura

A Comprehensive Technical Package for the Prevention of Youth Violence and Associated Risk Behaviors

National Center for Injury Prevention and Control Division of Violence Prevention

A Comprehensive Technical Package for the Prevention of Youth Violence

and Associated Risk Behaviors

Prepared by

Corinne David-Ferdon PhDAlana M Vivolo-Kantor PhD MPH

Linda L Dahlberg PhDKhiya J Marshall DrPH MPH

Neil Rainford MHSEJeffery E Hall PhD

2016

Division of Violence PreventionNational Center for Injury Prevention and Control

Centers for Disease Control and PreventionAtlanta Georgia

2 A Comprehensive Technical Package for the Prevention of Youth Violence and Associated Risk Behaviors

A Comprehensive Technical Package for the Prevention of Youth Violence and Associated Risk Behaviors is a publication of the National Center for Injury Prevention and Control of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

Centers for Disease Control and PreventionThomas R Frieden MD MPH Director

National Center for Injury Prevention and ControlDebra E Houry MD MPH Director

Division of Violence PreventionJames A Mercy PhD Director

Suggested citation David-Ferdon C Vivolo-Kantor A M Dahlberg L L Marshall K J Rainford N amp Hall J E (2016) A Comprehensive Technical Package for the Prevention of Youth Violence and Associated Risk Behaviors Atlanta GA National Center for Injury Prevention and Control Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

A Comprehensive Technical Package for the Prevention of Youth Violence and Associated Risk Behaviors 3

Contents

Acknowledgements 5

Partner Review 5

Overview 7

Promote Family Environments that Support Healthy Development 15

Provide Quality Education Early in Life 18

Strengthen Youthrsquos Skills 21

Connect Youth to Caring Adults and Activities 25

Create Protective Community Environments 29

Intervene to Lessen Harms and Prevent Future Risk 33

Benefits Relative to Costs 37

Sector Involvement 39

Monitoring and Evaluation 41

Conclusion 42

References 43

Appendix Summary of Strategies and Approaches to Prevent Youth Violence 60


AcknowledgementsThis technical package is based on decades of youth violence prevention research and we are appreciative of the hard work of the many individuals who have developed a tremendous amount of knowledge that makes the prevention of youth violence possible We thank Division Center CDC leadership and other CDC prevention scientists including Sarah Bacon Kevin Vagi and Brad Bartholow for their input careful review and helpful feedback on earlier iterations of this resource We thank Alida Knuth for her formatting and design expertise

We also extend our gratitude to all of our partners for their helpful feedback support and encouragement for this resource We would like to especially thank the American Institutes for Research American Psychological Association Equal Justice USA Michigan Youth Violence Prevention Center Monterey County Health Department National League of Cities North Carolina Rural Academic Center of Excellence in Youth Violence Prevention Prevention Institute Safe States Alliance and our Federal colleagues in the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health and in the Office of Minority Health for their helpful written feedback on this package

Partner ReviewCDC provided an overview of the youth violence technical package to partners and grantees in a series of webinars A draft of the youth violence technical package was also shared with partners and grantees following the webinars These partner organizations are listed below

Striving To Reduce Youth Violence Everywhere (STRYVE) Action CouncilAmerican Academy of Pediatrics American Association of School AdministratorsAmerican Psychological AssociationAmerican Public Health AssociationAssociation of State and Territorial Health Officials Boys and Girls Clubs of AmericaCommunity Anti-Drug Coalitions of AmericaHope Matters InternationalIllinois Childrenrsquos Mental Health PartnershipLocal Initiatives Support CorporationNational Association of County and City Health Officials National Association of Students Against Violence Everywhere National Council of Juvenile and Family Court JudgesNational League of CitiesPrevention InstituteSafe States AllianceYoung Menrsquos Christian Association

STRYVE Technical Assistance and GranteesAmerican Institutes for ResearchBoston Public Health Commission (MA)Houston Health Department (TX)Monterey County Health Department (CA)Multnomah County Health Department (OR)

Federal PartnersUnited States Department of JusticeOffice of Minority HealthNational Institute for Occupational Safety and Health

National Centers of Excellence in Youth Violence PreventionChicago Center for Youth Violence PreventionClark-Hill Institute for Positive Youth DevelopmentDenver National Center of Excellence in Youth Violence

PreventionJohns Hopkins Center for the Prevention of Youth ViolenceMichigan Youth Violence Prevention CenterNorth Carolina Rural Academic Center of Excellence in Youth

Violence PreventionUniversity of Louisville Youth Violence Prevention Center

CDCrsquos Division of Violence Prevention Policy NetworkAmerican Academy of PediatricsAmerican College of Preventive MedicineAmerican Foundation for Suicide PreventionAmerican Psychological AssociationCalifornia Coalition Against Sexual AssaultFutures Without ViolenceNational Association of County and City Health OfficialsNational Resource Center on Domestic ViolenceNational Sexual Violence Resource CenterNorth Carolina Coalition Against Sexual AssaultPrevent Child Abuse AmericaPrevention InstituteSafe States Alliance

A Comprehensive Technical Package for the Prevention of Youth Violence and Associated Risk Behaviors 7A Comprehensive Technical Package for the Prevention of Youth Violence and Associated Risk Behaviors 7

Overview This technical package represents a select group of strategies based on the best available evidence to help communities and states sharpen their focus on prevention activities with the greatest potential to prevent youth violence and its consequences These strategies include promoting family environments that support healthy development providing quality education early in life strengthening youthrsquos skills connecting youth to caring adults and activities creating protective community environments and intervening to lessen harms and prevent future risk The strategies represented in this package include those with a focus on preventing youth violence from happening in the first place as well as approaches to reduce the immediate and long-term harms of youth violence in order to prevent future violence Preventing youth violence requires multiple complementary strategies and those outlined in the package reflect the mature research-base about how to strengthen individualrsquos skills and relationships to prevent youth violence12 It also includes promising evidence about ways to address broader community issues that affect the likelihood of youth violence

This package supports CDCrsquos STRYVE initiative for preventing youth violence In particular this package articulates a select set of strategies and specific approaches to achieve STRYVErsquos vision of safe and healthy youth achieving their full potential (see box to the right) Commitment cooperation and leadership from numerous sectors including public health education justice health care social services business and government can bring about the successful implementation and long-term impact of this package

What is a Technical PackageA technical package is a compilation of a core set of strategies to achieve and sustain substantial reductions in a specific risk factor or outcome3 Technical packages help communities and states prioritize prevention activities based on the best available evidence This technical package has three components The first component is the strategy or the preventive direction or actions to achieve the goal of preventing youth violence The second component is the approach The approach includes the specific ways to advance the strategy This can be accomplished through programs policies and practices The evidence for each of the approaches in preventing youth violence or its associated risk factors is included as the third component This package is intended as a resource to guide and inform prevention decision-making in communities and states

CDCrsquos Striving To Reduce Youth Violence Everywhere Initiative

STRYVErsquos vision is safe and healthy youth who can achieve their full potential as connected and contributing members of thriving violence-free families schools and communities STRYVE works to

bull Increase public health leadership to prevent youth violence

bull Promote the widespread use of youth violence prevention strategies based on the best available evidence

bull Achieve national reductions in youth violence

STRYVE has several interacting components that all contribute to the achievement of the vision including national partnerships online training and tools and technical assistance

httpwwwcdcgovviolencepreventionstryveindexhtml

Preventing Youth Violence is a PriorityYouth violence is a significant public health problem that affects thousands of young people each day and in turn their families schools and communities Youth violence occurs when young people between the ages of 10 and 24 years intentionally use physical force or power to threaten or harm others14 Youth violence typically involves young people hurting other peers who are unrelated to them and who they may or may not know well Youth violence can take different forms Examples include fights bullying threats with weapons and gang-related violence A young person can be involved with youth violence as a victim offender or witness Different forms of youth violence can also vary in the harm that results and can include physical harm such as injuries or death as well as psychological harm increased medical and justice costs decreased property values and disruption of community services5

Youth violence is highly prevalent Youth violence is a leading cause of death and nonfatal injuries in the United States Homicide is the third leading cause of death among persons aged 10 to 24 years6 The majority of these homicides are from firearm violence In 2014 86 of youth homicide victims were killed with a firearm6 The number of young persons who are treated for nonfatal physical assault-related injuries in emergency departments in the United States is more than 115 times higher than the number killed6 Each day approximately 12 young people are victims of homicide and an additional 1374 are treated in emergency departments for nonfatal physical assault-related injuries6 Additionally self-report information indicates that 1 in 5 high school students was bullied at school or in a physical fight in the past year7 Although the rates of youth homicide and crime are declining these promising trends are inconsistent across population groups and the public health burden remains too high For instance the decline in homicide rates among non-Hispanic Black youth is less than the decline for non-Hispanic White youth8 Homicide has been the leading cause of death for non-Hispanic Black youth for more than three decades and is the second leading cause of death for Hispanic youth6

Youth violence is a significant problem that negatively impacts youth in urban suburban rural and tribal communities The rates and forms of youth violence however vary across subgroups of youth and communities Relative to females and non-Hispanic White youth young males and racialethnic minorities experience the greatest burden of youth violence with higher prevalence of homicide physical injuries and fighting67 Females and sexual minority youth have higher prevalence of in-person and electronic bullying than males and heterosexual peers7 Youth gang activity and violent crime are higher in larger cities than suburban and rural communities910


Youth violence is a leading cause of death and nonfatal injuries in the United States


The health and economic consequences of youth violence are substantial Youth violence has serious and lasting effects on the physical mental and social health of young people It is a leading cause of death for young people and results in more than 500000 medically treated physical injuries each year6 The impact of youth violence extends well beyond physical consequences Youth who experience violence as victims perpetrators or witnesses are more likely to have behavioral and mental health difficulties including future violence perpetration and victimization smoking substance use obesity high-risk sexual behavior depression academic difficulties school dropout and suicide11-15

An entire community feels the burden of youth violence For instance youth homicides and nonfatal physical assault-related injuries result in an estimated $182 billion annually in combined medical and lost productivity costs alone6 This estimate is a fraction of the true economic consequences of youth violence because it does not include criminal justice system costs such as arrest prosecution incarceration and re-entry or the costs associated with addressing the psychological and social consequences for victims perpetrators and their families It also does not include the costs incurred by communities to address victimsrsquo needs (eg property damage lost wages physical and mental health care) that result from youth violence and crime or the substantial economic impacts on communitiesrsquo healthcare system property values and social services systems51617 The costs of responding to youth violence significantly limit the resources states and communities have to address other needs and goals

Youth violence starts early in the lifespan Physical aggression can be common among toddlers and most children learn alternatives to using violence to solve problems and express their beliefs and emotions before starting elementary school18 A subset of children however continue to be aggressive and if their problematic behaviors are not addressed their aggression can persist and increase2 In addition to early physical aggression many other factors associated with the future perpetration of violence such as impulsivity poor emotional control and weak social and problem-solving skills are evident in early childhood19-21 Many risks for violence such as child abuse and neglect academic problems and poor supervision and management of childrenrsquos behavior also emerge early and heighten the likelihood for violence during adolescence and young adulthood These signs provide opportunities to change behaviors and conditions before violence patterns are established and become harder to modify18

Youth violence is associated with several risk and protective factors Youth violence is influenced by the interaction of multiple factors including a young personrsquos characteristics and experiences as well as by the relationships community and society within which young people develop No one factor in isolation leads to the development of youth violence and the presence of risks does not always mean a young person will experience violence Individual and interpersonal risks for perpetrating violence include impulsiveness youth substance use antisocial or aggressive beliefs and attitudes low levels of school achievement weak connection to school experiencing child abuse and neglect exposure to violence in the home or community involvement with delinquent peers or gangs lack of appropriate supervision parental substance abuse and parental or caregiver use of harsh or inconsistent discipline1252122 Depression anxiety chronic stress and trauma and peer conflict and rejection are also associated with youth violence perpetration and victimization223-27 Youth who are arrested particularly before age 13 have a heighten risk for future violence and crime school dropout and substance abuse182028-30 In addition unsupervised access to a firearm is a contributing factor for lethal youth violence3132 An increased risk for youth violence and crime is associated with many community factors such as residential instability crowded housing density of alcohol-related businesses poor economic growth or stability unemployment concentrated poverty neighborhood violence and crime lack of positive relationships among residents and views that drug use and violence are acceptable behaviors33-37 Some racialethnic minority youth are exposed to high levels of community violence and other neighborhood problems which contribute to disparities in youth violence violence-related injuries and death and other difficulties38-40

Evidence is mounting that many factors can buffer or reduce the likelihood of youth violence and multiple protective factors can even offset the potential harmful influence of risk factors that have accumulated over a childrsquos development41-43 Protective factors include healthy social problem-solving and emotional regulation skills and a young personrsquos school readiness and academic achievement4143-45 Positive and warm parent-youth relationships in which parents set consistent developmentally appropriate limits and demonstrate interest in their childrenrsquos education and social relationships are associated with healthy child and adolescent development and the prevention of violent behavior334446-52 Additional factors that contribute to healthy adolescent development and decrease


aggressive behavior include youth feeling connected to their schools experiencing academic success having positive relationships with teachers and other caring adults and interacting with prosocial and nonviolent peers184453-55 Physical environments of schools parks and business and residential areas that are regularly repaired and maintained and designed to increase visibility control access and promote positive interactions and appropriate use of public spaces also are buffers to violence56-58 Additional community buffers against violence and associated risks include household financial security safe and stable housing economic opportunities increasing access to services and social support residents willingness to assist each other and collective views that violence is not acceptable59-63

Youth violence is connected to other forms of violence The different forms of violence including youth violence child abuse and neglect teen dating violence adult intimate partner violence sexual violence and suicide have many common risk and protective factors6465 Many of these risks are the result of exposure to chronic stress that can alter and harm prenatal and child and adolescent brain development and in turn negatively impact attention impulsivity decision-making learning emotional control and response to stress6466-68 Chronic stress includes such issues as living in impoverished neighborhoods living in dilapidated housing frequently moving experiencing food insecurity experiencing racism limited access to support and medical services and living in homes with violence mental health problems substance abuse and other instability Some forms of violence can increase the risk for other forms of violence For example individuals who experience child abuse and neglect are significantly more likely to be in physical fights be affiliated with a gang damage property and attempt suicide during adolescence and young adulthood than those who do not experience child maltreatment69 Bullying is associated with an increased risk for weapon carrying physical fighting and other forms of violence such as suicide teen dating violence and subsequent sexual harassment perpetration70-74 Approaches that address risk and protective factors that are common across multiple forms of violence may be an effective and efficient way to prevent violence64

Youth violence can be prevented A strong and growing research base demonstrates that there are multiple prevention strategies that are scientifically proven to reduce youth violence victimization and perpetration and associated risk factors122175-77 As described in the Benefits Relative to Cost section of this technical package many evidence-based youth violence prevention programs and policies have economic benefits with community savings far outweighing implementation costs78-80 Strategies are available that benefit all youth regardless of their level of risk as well as individuals and environments at greatest risk Because youth violence results from multiple individual family and environmental factors that can accumulate over a childrsquos development the use of one strategy will have limited effects on an entire communityrsquos level of violence and its ability to sustain initial program benefits A comprehensive approach that simultaneously targets multiple risk and protective factors is critical to having a broad and continued impact on youth violence12281-83 Stopping youth violence before it occurs and sustaining this proactive approach throughout childhood and adolescence can be done with available programs practices and policies


Assessing the EvidenceThis technical package includes programs practices and policies with evidence of impact on youth violence victimization perpetration and risk or protective factors for youth violence To be considered for inclusion in the technical package the program practice or policy selected had to meet at least one of these criteria a) meta-analyses or systematic reviews showing impact on youth violence victimization or perpetration b) evidence from at least one rigorous (eg randomized controlled trial [RCT] or quasi-experimental design) evaluation study that found significant preventive effects on youth violence victimization or perpetration c) meta-analyses or systematic reviews showing impact on risk or protective factors for youth violence victimization or perpetration or d) evidence from at least one rigorous (eg RCT or quasi-experimental design) evaluation study that found significant impacts on risk or protective factors for youth violence victimization or perpetration Finally consideration was also given to the likelihood of achieving beneficial effects on multiple forms of violence no evidence of harmful effects on specific outcomes or with particular subgroups and feasibility of implementation in a United States (US) context if the program policy or practice has been evaluated in another country

The evidence base for youth violence prevention particularly for approaches focused on building youthrsquos skills and positive family environments and relationships is strong as evidenced by multiple meta-analyses and systematic reviews demonstrating impact of these approaches on behavioral outcomes In terms of the strength of the evidence meta-analyses or systematic reviews of programs that have demonstrated effects on behavioral outcomes provide a higher level of evidence However the evidence base is not that strong in all areas For instance there has been less evaluation of the effects of programs and policies that address community issues that affect the likelihood of youth violence Community-level approaches in this package showing impacts on risk (eg community crime rates drug use) or protective factors (eg positive adult supervision and role models positive school climate) reflect the developmental nature of the evidence base in this area and the use of the best available evidence at a given time

Despite being an important contributor to lethal and nonlethal violence among youth there is a dearth of evidence regarding effective approaches to reduce youthsrsquo unsupervised access possession and use of firearms This particular gap was noted in the Institute of Medicine and the National Research Councilrsquos report Priorities for Research to Reduce the Threat of Firearm-Related Violence88 For these reasons strategies and approaches specific to unsupervised access possession and weapon use are not included although many of the strategies and approaches that are included in the package are designed to address risk and protective factors to prevent youth from becoming involved in firearm-related violence in the first place

In terms of the strategies and approaches in the package it is important to note that there can be significant heterogeneity among the programs policies or practices that fall within one approach or strategy area in terms of the nature and quality of the available evidence Not all programs policies or practices that utilize the same approach (eg home visitation mentoring) are equally effective and even those that are effective may not work across all populations28 Tailoring programs and conducting more evaluation may be necessary to better understand effectiveness across different population groups and communities90 The examples provided in this technical package are not intended to be a comprehensive list of evidence-based programs policies or practices for each approach but rather illustrate models that have been shown to impact youth violence victimization or perpetration or have beneficial effects on risk or protective factors for youth violence and could be implemented in communities

Identifying activities with evidence of impact on victimization perpetration and risk or protective factors for youth violence is only the first step In practice the effectiveness of the programs policies and practices identified in this package will be strongly dependent on how well programs are implemented as well as the partners and communities in which they are implemented9192 The readiness of the program for broad dissemination and implementation (eg availability of program materials training and technical assistance) can also influence program effects9394 Implementation guidance to assist practitioners organizations and communities will be developed separately

Research shows some programs practices and policies have harmful effects on youthrsquos behavior22984-87 Reasons for harmful effects may include lack of youthrsquos skill development in real-world settings limited adult supervision and increased opportunities for delinquent youth to associate with each other Examples of ineffective approaches include transfer of juvenile offenders to the adult criminal system shock and military-style programs (eg Scared Straight boot camps) residential or individual treatment used in isolation training youth to mediate peer conflict in school settings and not promoting youth to succeeding grades


Contextual and Cross-Cutting ThemesThe strategies and approaches included in this technical package represent different levels of the social ecology with efforts intended to impact individual behaviors and also the relationships families schools and communities that influence risk and protective factors for youth violence The strategies and approaches are intended to work in combination and reinforce each other to prevent youth violence in a comprehensive and long-term way (see box below) While individual skills are important and research has demonstrated the preventive effects of many youth skill development programs approaches addressing relationships with parents peers and other caring adults as well as approaches that influence school and community environments are equally important to have the greatest public health impact

Preventing Youth Violence

Strategy Approach

Promote family environments that support healthy development

bull Early childhood home visitationbull Parenting skill and family relationship programs

Provide quality education early in life bull Preschool enrichment with family engagement

Strengthen youthrsquos skills bull Universal school-based programs

Connect youth to caring adults and activities

bull Mentoring programsbull After-school programs

Create protective community environments

bull Modify the physical and social environment bull Reduce exposure to community-level risks bull Street outreach and community norm change

Intervene to lessen harms and prevent future risk

bull Treatment to lessen the harms of violence exposuresbull Treatment to prevent problem behavior and further involvement

in violencebull Hospital-community partnerships

The social and cultural context of communities and organizations is critically important to take into account when selecting strategies and approaches for implementation Practitioners in the field may be in the best position to assess the needs and strengths of their communities and work with partners to make decisions about the combination of approaches included here that are best suited to their context Data-driven strategic prevention planning models such as Communities That Care (CTC) PROmoting School-community-university Partnerships to Encourage Resiliency (PROSPER) and the Cardiff Violence Prevention Partnership can support communities in using data to assess local risks and protective factors to inform the selection and ongoing monitoring of evidence-based programs These data-driven partnerships and activities can contribute to significant reductions in violence violence-related injuries and crime as well as cost savings for the medical educational and justice systems95-102


The strategies and approaches in this package have the potential to reduce multiple forms of violence (eg child abuse and neglect teen dating violence sexual violence) and other adolescent health problems (eg teen pregnancy sexually transmitted infections) The strategies and approaches in this technical package can improve young peoplersquos adaptive behavior and academic success For instance school-based programs that strengthen youthrsquos problem-solving and conflict management skills can reduce physical and verbal violence bullying teen dating violence sexual violence alcohol and drug use and sexual risk behaviors76 They can also be used to strengthen academic performance improve graduation rates and create a positive school climate Given that many risks for youth violence are evident before adolescence programs that are designed to promote healthy child development and reduce the likelihood of child abuse and neglect can also potentially prevent violence in the teen years and in adulthood103-105 The interconnection of these experiences and risk and protective factors suggests that the implementation of strategies and approaches to prevent youth violence can have substantial long-term health social and economic benefits6465 However it is also important to note that child abuse and neglect teen dating violence and sexual violence may also require additional prevention activities than those outlined in this technical package CDC has developed technical packages for these other forms of violence to help communities identify additional strategies and approaches106-109

Public health has a clear responsibility to help reduce the health burden of youth violence has expertise applying science to reduce the risk for complex health problems and can act to reduce youth violence1 This package includes strategies where public health agencies are well positioned to bring leadership and resources to implementation efforts It also includes strategies where public health can serve as an important collaborator (eg strategies addressing community-level risks) but where leadership and commitment from other sectors such as business is critical to implement a particular policy or program (eg business improvement districts) The role of various sectors in the implementation of a strategy or approach in preventing youth violence is described further in the section on Sector Involvement

In the sections that follow the strategies and approaches with the best available evidence for preventing youth violence are described

The strategies and approaches in this technical

package can improve young peoplersquos

adaptive behavior and academic

success


Promote Family Environments that Support Healthy DevelopmentRationaleThe family environment plays a key role in shaping youthrsquos physical emotional social and behavioral health and this influence extends from early childhood through late adolescence and beyond110-111 Family environments that are unstable stressful lack structure and supervision have poor relationships and communication between family members and use harsh or limited discipline with children are risk factors for youth violence and contribute to young people developing other risks such as poor problem-solving skills and early and continued perpetration of aggression3348112113 Decades of research show that nurturing and supportive family environments where caregivers build warm and caring relationships with children monitor childrenrsquos activities and friendships set age-appropriate expectations and rules and use consistent and nonviolent discipline significantly lower the risk for youth violence and other adolescent health risk behaviors3346-52 The promotion of positive family environments throughout a childrsquos development is connected to caregiversrsquo knowledge about healthy and age-appropriate child development as well as the ways families communicate manage behavior and resolve conflict

ApproachesThere are a number of approaches that can help families create and maintain supportive nurturing and structured environments at every stage of a young personrsquos development

Early childhood home visitation programs provide information caregiver support and training about child health development and care to families in their homes and help families access services Home visiting programs may be delivered by nurses professionals or paraprofessionals114 Many programs are offered to low-income first time mothers to help them establish healthy family environments114 The content and structure of programs can also vary depending on the model being utilized with some being highly manualized and others being more flexible in delivery114 Some programs begin during pregnancy while others begin after the birth of the child and may continue up through the child entering elementary school

Parenting skill and family relationship programs provide caregivers with support and teach communication problem-solving and behavior monitoring and management skills These programs can be self-directed or delivered to individual families or groups of families For families at high risk for conflict and child behavior problems tailored delivery to individual families yields greater benefits than group administration47115116 Single-parent families often participate in these programs and some programs have sessions primarily with parents while others include parent youth and family sessions Programs are typically designed for families with children in a specific age range with some designed for preschool and elementary aged children and others for middle and high-school aged youth49115 Specific program content typically varies by the age of the child but often has consistent themes of child development parental monitoring and management of childrenrsquos behavior appropriate use of rewards and punishment parent-child communication and relationships and youthrsquos interpersonal and problem-solving skills495152115


Potential Outcomes bull Reductions in behavior problems and disruptive behavior at home and schoolbull Reductions in physical fighting aggression and delinquencybull Reductions in arrests convictions and probation violationsbull Reductions in alcohol and drug use by youth and parentsbull Reductions in family conflictbull Reductions in child abuse and neglectbull Reductions in parental depression and stressbull Increases in compliance to caregiverrsquos directionsbull Increases in prosocial behavior (eg social skills such as concern for others empathy and cooperation) bull Increases in parent-child connection communication and relationship qualitybull Increases in positive parenting practices such as monitoring and supervision of youthrsquos activities use of consistent

and nonviolent discipline and involvement and support of youth

EvidenceApproaches that enhance family environments have demonstrated effects in preventing youth violence and other adolescent health risk behaviors46-52104

Early childhood home visitation Home visiting programs are effective in improving parenting behaviors and childrenrsquos social and emotional development but the evidence is mixed with some programs showing strong effects and others showing few to no effects potentially due to the varying content and delivery of these programs114117 Families participating in the Nurse Family Partnershipreg (NFP) program had 45 fewer childhood behavior problems and parental coping problems as recorded by physicians relative to nonparticipating families and participating youth by age 15 had significantly fewer arrests convictions and probation violations104118 Female youth at age 19 whose family participated in NFP were significantly less likely than a comparison group to be arrested (10 versus 30) and convicted (4 versus 20)103 NFP also demonstrated significant impacts on risk and protective factors for youth violence including reducing child abuse and neglect and substance use by parents and youths104119 The Home Visiting Evidence of Effectiveness Review identifies other home visiting programs that may work for communities depending on available resources and the context in which the home visiting program is delivered114

Parenting skill and family relationship programs Multiple systematic reviews of various parent skill and family relationship approaches have demonstrated beneficial impacts on perpetration as well as risk and protective factors for youth violence334749515276 One example is The Incredible Yearsreg which is designed for families with young children up to 12 years of age and can be implemented with additional components for teachers and children in school A meta-analysis of effects associated with The Incredible Yearsreg found significant decreases in childrenrsquos disruptive behaviors at home and school and increases in their prosocial behaviors120 Impacts on other risk and protective factors include reductions in parental depression and stress improvements in childrenrsquos compliance with parental directions stronger parent-child connections and communication and improvements in positive parenting practices related to monitoring discipline and mother-child interactions76121 Behavioral benefits are broader and sustained longer when both the parent and child participate in the program121 Parent Management Training-Oregon Modeltrade (PMTO) is another example where participating youth relative to controls have demonstrated significantly lower rates of behavior problems aggression and arrest122123 Other program benefits of PMTO include increases in positive parenting practices and the familyrsquos socioeconomic status124125

Several other effective programs focus on families with youth ages 10ndash17 This transitional period into adolescence is when risk behaviors can increase and more severe forms of violence can emerge Examples of effective programs include Strengthening Families 10ndash14 Coping Power and Familias Unidastrade Four years after participating in the Strengthening Families 10ndash14 program self-report data from youth indicated significant relative reductions in physical fighting (32) throwing items to cause injury (54) and purposely damaging property (77) as well as lower levels of observer-rated family conflict126 Relative to families in control conditions participating families also reported lower youth substance use and improvements in parent-child affective quality and child management skills127-129 Rigorous evaluations of Coping Power show significantly lower rates of youth delinquency and aggressive acts parentsrsquo lack of support and youth substance use among participating families relative to controls one and three years after participating in the program130-132 One study of Familias Unidastrade found reductions in adolescent aggression and other behavior problems over time among participating families relative to controls Program participants relative to controls also demonstrated improvements in protective factors for adolescent behavior problems including increased parental involvement and support of youth positive parenting practices parent-child communication parental monitoring and youthrsquos substance use133-135


Approaches that enhance family

environments have demonstrated effects

in preventing youth violence


Provide Quality Education Early in LifeRationaleQuality early childhood education can improve childrenrsquos cognitive and socioemotional development and increase the likelihood that children will experience safe stable nurturing relationships and environments and long-term academic success and health including lower rates of behavior problems aggression and crime136137 High-quality early education environments such as ones that are licensed and accredited promote youthrsquos social skill and cognitive development strengthen connections to school and reduce problem behaviors at school and at home138139 These benefits in turn contribute to stronger scholastic achievement and less family stress and conflict throughout childhood and adolescence Early childhood education that includes parental engagement can strengthen youth outcomes family involvement in childrenrsquos future education and parenting practices and attitudes137140141 These integrated approaches also create pathways for youth and families to access ancillary supports such as employment transportation and meal assistance and mental and physical health services which can further address risks and build buffers against future violence

ApproachesPreschool enrichment with family engagement is an approach for enhancing the foundation for a childrsquos academic social and behavioral development through adolescence and into adulthood

Preschool enrichment with family engagement programs provide high-quality early education and support to economically disadvantaged families to build a strong foundation for the childrenrsquos future learning and healthy development and lower risks for future academic and behavioral problems Programs are generally available to children and families who meet basic qualifications such as being residents in a high-poverty school area eligible for federal Title I funding demonstrate need and agree to participate or have incomes at or below the federal poverty level142 Program content and delivery vary based on the model used and can include home visits connections to community supports and half- to full-day child care and school programs Parental involvement is emphasized as critical in the childrsquos development and in increasing childrenrsquos success in school Programs often begin in infancy or toddlerhood and may continue into early or middle childhood

Potential Outcomes bull Reductions in aggressive behaviorbull Reductions in arrests convictions and incarcerationbull Reductions in child abuse and neglect welfare encounters and out-of-home placementsbull Reductions in grade retention and special education servicesbull Reductions in smoking alcohol and drug use bull Reductions in parentrsquos use of harsh verbal and physical disciplinebull Increases in cognitive and language developmentbull Increases in nurturing and supportive parent-child interactions effective child behavior management strategies

and home environments supportive of learning bull Increases in high school completion college attendance and number of years of educationbull Increases in full-time employment and health insurance in adulthood


Quality early childhood

education can increase the likelihood that

children will experience safe stable nurturing

relationships and environments

Evidence Evidence exists that preschool enrichment programs with family engagement can reduce childrenrsquos aggression and conduct problems as well as reduce youthrsquos perpetration of violence and aggression during adolescence and young adulthood with benefits stronger and more stable when preschool and family supports extend into early elementary school143

Preschool enrichment with family engagement programs can lower the prevalence of problems in early childhood including aggression and child abuse and neglect and have broader and long-term impacts on parent-child interactions and youthrsquos academic achievement substance use and perpetration of violence and crime Examples of effective programs are Child Parent Centers (CPCs) and Early Head Start (EHS) CPCs have been evaluated in multiple long-term studies For instance when followed to age 20 low-income minority children who participated in the CPC preschool program relative to youth in other early childhood programs had significantly lower rates of juvenile arrest (169 versus 251) violent arrests (90 versus 153) and multiple arrests (95 versus 128)105 At age 24 relative to youth with fewer years of CPC participation (eg preschool only) youth who participated in the program for 4 to 6 years had a 22 reduction in arrests for violence as well as significantly lower rates for violent convictions and multiple incarcerations143 Across studies youth participating in CPCs also experience numerous other benefits relative to comparison groups including lower rates of substantiated reports of child abuse and neglect out-of-home placements grade retention special education services depression and substance use as well as higher rates of high school completion attendance in four-year colleges health insurance and full-time employment in adulthood79105141143

Multiple evaluations of EHS demonstrate significant program impacts on violence as well as other short- and long-term benefits For instance relative to families accessing community services the 3-year-old children of families participating in EHS demonstrated significantly less aggressive behavior had better cognitive and language development and had parents who were more emotionally supportive provided more language and learning stimulation read to their children more often and spanked less144 Children in EHS also had significantly fewer child welfare encounters and substantiated reports of physical or sexual abuse encounters between the ages of 5 and 9 than did children in the control group and EHS slowed the rate of subsequent child welfare encounters145 Children in EHS were more likely to have a substantiated report of neglect which is likely not due to EHS Rather enrollment in EHS may have increased monitoring of families and the visibility of young children experiencing neglect145 The EHS home-based program when fully implemented also showed participating families had many benefits two years after the program relative to a comparison group including children with fewer social behavior problems stronger parent-child engagement and home environments more supportive of learning146


Strengthen Youthrsquos Skills RationaleStrengthening youthrsquos skills is an important component of a comprehensive approach to preventing youth violence The likelihood of violence increases when youth have under-developed or ineffective skills in the areas of communication problem-solving conflict resolution and management empathy impulse control and emotional regulation and management233147-149 Skill-development has an extensive and robust research base which shows building youthrsquos interpersonal emotional and behavioral skills can help reduce both youth violence perpetration and victimization2217677150-152 Enhancing these skills can also impact risk or protective factors for youth violence such as substance use and academic success150152153 These life skills can help youth increase their self-awareness accuracy in understanding social situations ability to avoid risky situations and behaviors and capacity to resolve conflict without violence

ApproachesUniversal school-based programs are a widely used approach to help youth develop skills to prevent violence and engage in healthy behaviors

Universal school-based programs (sometimes also referred to as social-emotional learning approaches) work in childhood and adolescence to enhance interpersonal and emotional skills including communication and problem-solving empathy emotional awareness and regulation conflict management and team work150151 This approach also provides information about violence seeks to change the way youth think and feel about violence and provides opportunities to practice and reinforce skills The content and format of skill development programs vary depending on the model being utilized These school-based approaches often include guidance to teachers and other school personnel on ways to build youthrsquos skills monitor and manage behavior and build a positive school climate to reduce aggression and violence such as bullying and support academic success These approaches are typically delivered to all students in a particular grade or school These approaches can be used in all grade levels but are primarily used in elementary and middle schools98

Potential Outcomes bull Reductions in perpetration and victimization of verbal and physical aggressionbull Reductions in bullying and conduct problemsbull Reductions in delinquencybull Reductions in the involvement in violent and nonviolent crime in young adulthoodbull Reductions in smoking alcohol and drug use bull Reductions in depression and suicidal ideation bull Reductions in other adolescent risk behaviors (eg sex without a condom multiple sex partners risky driving) bull Increases in emotional regulation understanding social situations and developing effective and nonviolent solutionsbull Increases in academic proficiencybull Increases in positive bystander behavior bull Increases in anti-bullying school policiesbull Increases in positive school climate


EvidenceThe evidence suggests that universal school-based programs can reduce aggressive behavior including bullying and other risky behaviors associated with youth violence

Universal school-based programs Multiple systematic reviews of various universal school-based programs demonstrate beneficial impacts on youthrsquos skills and behaviors including delinquency aggression bullying perpetration and victimization and bystander skills that lower the likelihood of violence and support victims7677151154155 For example the Task Force for Community Preventive Services found a 15 relative reduction in violent behavior among students in pre-kindergarten through high school151 Using different outcome measures the median relative reduction in aggression and violent behavior associated with universal school-based programs varied by grade level with a 32 reduction for pre-kindergarten and kindergarten students 18 reduction for elementary students 7 reduction for middle school students and 29 reduction for high school students Researchers suggest the benefits of these school-based approaches could be strengthened if programs implemented at early grade levels are continued into the critical high school years98 These programs were effective in reducing youth violence in different types of school environments including ones with varying socioeconomic status crime rates or predominant raceethnicity of students151

Examples of effective classroom-based programs are Good Behavior Game (GBG) Promoting Alternative THinking Strategiesreg (PATHS) Life Skillsreg Training (LST) and Steps to Respect (STR) The GBG has demonstrated that participants had significantly lower levels of classroom aggression in elementary school and some studies of the long-term effects of GBG showed significantly lower levels of aggression in middle school and lower prevalence of antisocial personality disorder and violent crime by age 19 to 21156-159 These effects were for male youth with relatively higher levels of early aggression when compared to youth in alternative intervention conditions157-159 These participants also had lower prevalence of alcohol abuse smoking and suicidal ideation by the time they reached young adulthood157160

Multiple evaluations of PATHS show significant program impacts on aggression violent behaviors and a number of developmental risk factors for violent behavior among participants in both regular and special education classrooms76 For instance randomized controlled trials of PATHS found participants relative to controls were better able to regulate their emotions understand social problems develop effective solutions and decrease their use of aggressive responses to conflict161 At the one-year follow-up participants also reported fewer depression symptoms and had fewer conduct problems161 An independent randomized evaluation replication which tracked students from 14 schools over a period of 3 years found less self-reported aggressive problem-solving and fewer teacher-reported conduct problems among participants relative to controls162 Relative to controls participants also demonstrated greater reading and math proficiency in fourth grade and writing proficiency in fifth and sixth grade163

In multiple short- and long-term randomized trials of the LST program participants demonstrated significant improvements in social skills such as assertiveness and self-control and a lower prevalence of many risk behaviors including smoking alcohol and drug use HIV risk behavior and unsafe driving76 A randomized trial of program benefits on violence outcomes across 41 schools found student participants in a one-year LST program relative to students receiving a standard health education curriculum reported a 32 reduction in delinquency a 36 reduction in frequent delinquency (ge 3 events) and a 26 reduction in frequent fighting (ge 3 events)164 Stronger prevention benefits were found for youth who participated in at least half of the program including less physical and verbal aggression fighting and delinquency164

STR is one school-based program with demonstrated impacts on bullying and youth violence protective factors A longitudinal evaluation of STR found after the second year of implementation participants had a 31 decrease in bullying and victimization 36 decrease in non-bullying aggression and 72 decrease in harmful bystander behavior165 A large scale replication evaluation found significantly lower levels of physical bullying perpetration among participants relative to controls and significant increases in school anti-bullying policies positive school climate and positive bystander behavior166


Universal school-based

programs can reduce aggressive

behavior including bullying and other

risky behaviors


Connect Youth to Caring Adults and ActivitiesRationaleYoung peoplersquos risk for violence can be buffered through strong connections to caring adults and involvement in activities that help young people grow and apply new skills4453147 Relationships with caring adults in addition to parents or caregivers can influence young peoplersquos behavioral choices and reduce their risk for involvement in crime and violence alcohol and other substance use and high-risk sexual behavior445355 These caring adults could include teachers coaches extended family members neighbors and community volunteers Exposure to positive adult role models helps youth learn acceptable and appropriate behavior54 Through positive interpersonal relationships and learning activities youth can also develop broad and healthy life goals improve their school engagement and skills and establish networks and have experiences that improve their future schooling and employment opportunities147 These connections and experiences and the many benefits they contribute to such as enhanced academic performance are protective against involvement in crime and violence42167

ApproachesMentoring and after-school programs are two approaches for connecting youth to caring adults and engaging youth in activities to reduce or buffer against their risk for violence perpetration and victimization

Mentoring programs pair youth with a volunteer from the community with the goal of fostering a relationship that will contribute to the young personrsquos growth opportunities skill development and academic success89168 Mentoring programs may be delivered without any set location for mentoring activities or be implemented in a specific location such as a community center or faith-based organization Mentoring programs can also be implemented in school settings (eg volunteers meet with youth on school grounds) and include academic support and enrichment activities168169 Program models can involve one-to-one matching of an adult mentor with a youth or take a group mentoring approach The level of training and support provided to mentors varies depending on the model used Programs can varying in how similar mentors and youth are in their interests and how frequently they spend time together168169 Mentoring programs can be delivered to any youth from early childhood through adolescence without regard to known risk factors although programs more typically focus on youth perceived to be at risk for problems in academics behavior or health168

After-school programs provide opportunities for youth to strengthen their social and academic skills and become involved in school and community activities to expand their prosocial experiences and relationships These approaches also address key risk and protective factors for youth violence by helping to provide supervision during critical times of the day such as from 300 to 600 pm when youth crime and violence peak170 After-school programs range from those offering tutoring and homework assistance to more formal skill-based programming and structured learning activities168 Opportunities to develop and practice leadership decision-making self-management and social problem-solving skills are important components of programs that work171172 After-school programs may be offered on school grounds or in community settings168


Potential Outcomes bull Reductions in perpetration and victimization of violencebull Reductions in physical fighting and delinquencybull Reductions in involvement in gang activitybull Reductions in rates of arrests for violent and nonviolent crimebull Reductions in drug selling bull Reductions in alcohol and drug usebull Reductions in truancybull Reductions in rates of school dropoutbull Increases in academic performance and perceptions of academic abilitiesbull Increases in graduation ratesbull Increases in parent-child relationships and parental trustbull Increases in positive relationships with teachers or prosocial adults

EvidenceEvidence suggests that mentoring and after-school approaches can benefit youth in a number of ways including reducing their risk for involvement in crime and violence although the evidence of effectiveness varies by model and program

Mentoring programs Systematic reviews and meta-analyses of mentoring programs show strong support for improvements in outcomes across behavioral social emotional and academic domains5389169 Big Brothers Big Sisters of America (BBBS) is the oldest and best known example of a one-on-one mentoring program implemented in community and school settings in the United States173 An evaluation of the community-based BBBS mentoring program found positive impacts on a number of problem behaviors174 At the 18-month follow-up mentored youth had skipped half as many days of school as control youth and were 46 less likely to have initiated illegal drugs and 27 less likely to have initiated alcohol use which are important risk factors for youth violence Mentored youth were also 32 less likely to have engaged in a physical fight Other benefits included stronger academic competence and improvements in parental trust Although the benefits were significant for both boys and girls many of the strongest gains were among the Little Sisters

A national evaluation of the school-based mentoring program of BBBS found that mentored youth performed better academically had more positive perceptions of their academic abilities and were more likely to report having a special adult in their lives for support relative to a control group of non-mentored youthmdashfactors that protect against youth violence175 Impacts on other youth outcomes were influenced by relationship factors Higher-quality mentoring relationships were associated with improvements in parental and student-teacher relationships176 These in turn were associated with better youth outcomes such as increased prosocial behavior and decreases in problem behaviors such as getting into a physical fight in the neighborhood and vandalizing property176

After-school programs The evidence for after-school programs varies with some programs showing few or small effects and others showing significant benefits on academic behavioral and social-emotional outcomes55171172177 These mixed effects likely are due to differences in program models duration program structure staff and diversity of participants172 One example with demonstrated benefits on schooling and delinquency outcomes is the Los Angelesrsquo Better Educated Students for Tomorrow (LArsquos BEST) program A rigorous longitudinal evaluation of LArsquos BEST found significant positive effects on academic achievement and reductions in arrests for youth crime and violence especially among those who attended at least 10 days per month and had significant adult contact relative to control students from the same schools who attended fewer days and relative to control students from matched schools178

Another example is the After School Matters (ASM) program which offers apprenticeship experiences in technology science communication the arts and sports to high-school students in Chicago Public Schools179 An initial impact study of academic outcomes found that ASM students had fewer course failures higher graduation rates and lower school dropout rates by age 18 than non-ASM students180 A rigorous randomized controlled trial of the program across 10 predominately lower-income raciallyethnically diverse high schools found a number of other positive outcomes Participating youth missed fewer days of school had better attitudes toward school higher self-regulation and were less likely to sell drugs or participate in gang activity than control youth181


Mentoring and after-school

approaches can benefit youth in a

number of ways including reducing their

risk for involvement in crime and

violence


Create Protective Community EnvironmentsRationaleCreating protective community environments in which young people develop is a necessary step towards achieving population-level reductions in youth violence Communities can include places with any defined population with shared characteristics and environments such as schools towns cities youth-serving organizations or institutions and areas (eg parks business districts public transportation hubs) where individuals regularly interact Approaches that modify the characteristics of these places are considered community-level approaches Such approaches can involve for example changes to policies or the physical and social aspects of settings in order to reduce risk factors and increase protective factors for youth violence1 These changes can have a significant influence on individual behavior by creating a context that promotes social norms that protect against violence182 These approaches can improve perceived and actual safety and reduce opportunities for violence and crime and in turn increase protective factors such as residents having more prosocial interactions and opportunities to support youth Approaches that create protective environments can reduce violence-related injury and death as well as have long-term benefits by reducing childrenrsquos exposure to violence and the consequences of this exposure39183

ApproachesThe current evidence suggests three approaches with promise for modifying the characteristics of settings associated with youth violence victimization and perpetration

Modify the physical and social environment These approaches prevent youth violence and crime by enhancing and maintaining the physical characteristics of settings where people come together in order to foster social interaction strengthen connectedness and increase collective efficacy (eg shared trust among residents and willingness to intervene)56-58 Examples of this work include increasing lighting managing accessibility to buildings and public spaces street cleaning increasing security abandoned building and vacant lot remediation creating green space and sponsoring community events that bring residents together These approaches can also be applied in school and other settings where young people frequently interact184-187 These approaches are often led by governmental and nongovernmental community partners (eg city planners parks and recreation business) and may include youth and adult residents

Reduce exposure to community-level risks Youth violence is associated with a number of community-level risks such as concentrated poverty residential instability and density of alcohol outlets33376163 Reducing exposure to these community-level risks can potentially yield population-level impacts on youth violence outcomes188 Prevention approaches to reduce these risks include changing enacting or enforcing laws city ordinances and local regulations and policies to improve household financial security safe and affordable housing and the social and economic sustainability of neighborhoods Public-private partnerships and community-driven needs and services are important elements of these approaches

Street outreach and community norm change approaches connect trained outreach staff with residents to mediate conflicts promote norms of nonviolence and connect youth to community supports to reduce risks and build buffers against violence183 The ways in which these connections occur can vary depending on the model used outreach staff training and expertise and available community resources Outreach staff typically connect with residents with known histories of engaging in criminal and violence-related activities or who are at heighten risk to engage in violence (eg had a recent argument family member or friend recently harmed by violence) This approach also uses public education and neighborhood events to change norms about the acceptability of violence and willingness of community members to act in ways to reduce the likelihood of violence


Potential Outcomes bull Reductions in nonfatal physical assault firearm assaults nonfatal shootings and homicidebull Reductions in violence-related injuries among youthbull Reductions in nonviolent and violent crime and arrestsbull Reductions in gang-related violencebull Reductions in community risk factors for youth violence (eg alcohol use by minors)bull Reductions in acceptability of using guns to resolve disputesbull Increases in normative beliefs that violence is unacceptable

EvidenceThe evidence supporting these approaches is growing and shows significant impacts on neighborhood crime and youth violence77189

Modify the physical and social environment Evaluations of physical and social environment approaches demonstrate significant decreases in crime and violence in neighborhood settings For example Business Improvement Districts (BIDs) are public-private partnerships that collect and invest resources from local merchants and property owners into local services and activities such as efforts to improve commercial activity street cleaning and beautification and public safety in order to increase appeal and use by residents and the prosperity of the businesses and community An evaluation of BIDs in Los Angeles found a 12 reduction in robberies and 8 reduction in overall violent crime in BID neighborhoods compared to the non-exposed neighborhoods as well as significant economic benefits due to reduced crime rates reduced arrests and lower prosecution-related expenditures78190 Environmental design activities such as Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED) promote positive interpersonal interactions and the safe use of spaces through enhanced visibility access management and proper maintenance and design56 A systematic review of CPTED principles applied to business settings found significant reductions in robberies191 Evaluations and a systematic review also show communities applying some CPTED principles such as abandoned building and vacant lot remediation and cleaning and maintenance of neighborhood green spaces and housing experience decreases in gun assaults youth homicide disorderly conduct and violent crime as well as beneficial impacts on residentsrsquo perception of crime stress community pride and physical health192-197

Reduce exposure to community-level risks Strengthening household financial security through tax credits such as the Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC) can help families increase their income while incentivizing work or offsetting the costs of child-rearing and help create home environments that promote healthy development198 While the EITC has not been evaluated for its direct impact on rates of youth violence the evidence suggests that the EITC can lift families out of poverty199200 Simulations show that a Child Tax Credit of a $1000 allowance per child paid to each household regardless of income or tax status would reduce child poverty in the United States from 263 to 232 a $2000 allowance per child would reduce child poverty to 204 a $3000 allowance per child would reduce child poverty to 176 and a $4000 allowance per child would reduce child poverty to 148201 The Low-Income Housing Tax Credit (LIHTC) which is designed to improve the availability of safe and affordable rental housing in highly distressed urban neighborhoods can help revitalize the poorest neighborhoods and offset a number of negative outcomes in these communities59 There is evidence suggesting that the LIHTC can reduce the concentration of poverty and is also associated with reductions in violent crime and aggravated assault without evidence of spatial displacement59202

Evaluations of other strategies to reduce exposure to community-level risks are emerging with policies related to alcohol receiving substantial attention Systematic reviews and meta-analyses show alcohol policies (eg location and concentration of outlets licensing regulations pricing hours and days of sale) can influence risk factors associated with youth violence and other health conditions203-205 An evaluation of a Richmond Virginia policy restricting licenses for the sale of single-serve alcoholic beverages by convenience stores found significant declines in ambulance pickups of youth for violent injuries (196 to 0 per 1000) as compared to a control community (74 to 33 per 1000)206 International studies also demonstrate policies related to alcohol sales are associated with significant reductions in homicide physical assaults and violent crime207-209

Street outreach and community norm change Several types of street outreach and community norm change programs exist and some have evidence to support their effectiveness in preventing violence Cure Violence (formerly known as Ceasefire) and similar programs such as Baltimorersquos Safe Streets have been implemented and evaluated in several communities These programs are associated with reductions in gun violence homicides gang-related violence and nonfatal assault-related injuries in some but not all implementation areas where studied183 An evaluation of Chicagorsquos Cure Violence implemented in seven communities found significant reductions in aggravated batteries and assaults and shootings in half of the implementation communities while the other implementation communities either had no significant declines or no differences in the rate of decline relative to the comparison communities210 An evaluation of Baltimorersquos Safe Streets program in four neighborhoods found significant reductions in nonfatal shootings in the four implementation areas significant reductions in homicide in two implementation areas and either no reduction or an increase in homicides in two implementation areas relative to comparison communities The impacts on homicide and nonfatal injuries also extended to the neighborhoods surrounding the implementation sites Across all the implementation sites and bordering areas the combined prevention effects were at least 5 fewer homicides and approximately 35 fewer nonfatal shootings182 Across the implemented programs and evaluations investigators suggest mixed effects may be related to variations in the outreach workers how well the program is managed and implemented and other community contextual factors such as shifts in gang violence and support from neighborhood organizations182183

An additional goal of these programs is to change community norms about the acceptability of violence The evaluation of Safe Streets on youthrsquos attitudes found youth in one intervention community were 4 times less likely than youth in a nonintervention comparison neighborhood to support the use of a gun to resolve disputes211 Another evaluation shows one year after the implementation of Safe Streets youth in the intervention community relative to the control community had significant changes in their attitudes about the use of gun violence to resolve conflicts with intervention youth viewing violence to solve conflicts less favorably60


Evaluations of physical and social environment

approaches demonstrate significant decreases in

crime and violence in neighborhood settings


Intervene to Lessen Harms and Prevent Future RiskRationaleMany youth who engage in violence as teens and young adults have histories of childhood conduct problems aggression violence perpetration and victimization delinquency and criminal behavior2033212-214 These youth often have other known risk factors for violence including substance use academic problems associations with deviant peers and home environments characterized by disruption conflict violence and other family problems2033215 Many have experienced traumatic events and show signs of behavioral and mental health problems from experiencing witnessing and living with chronic exposures to violence and in unhealthy environments15216217 Justice responses such as incarceration alone have limited effect on youthsrsquo future criminal behavior and some policies such as the transfer of juvenile offenders to adult criminal courts can result in worse outcomes for youth1528-30218 Other approaches designed to address these youthsrsquo many risk factors have the potential to interrupt the continuation and escalation of violence249219220 These interventions can also create resiliency and strengthen familial protective factors such as parental monitoring parent-child communication and behavioral management

ApproachesSeveral approaches have been identified to lessen the harms of violence exposure and prevent the continuation and escalation of violence and its associated risk factors including therapeutic treatments and hospital-community partnerships that provide brief intervention and community prevention services

Treatment to lessen the harms of violence exposures Therapeutic treatment can mitigate the behavioral and health consequences of witnessing or experiencing violence in the home and community and other adverse child experiences221-224 Improvements can occur in youthrsquos maladaptive and acting out behaviors irritability difficulty sleeping or concentrating and symptoms of depression anxiety and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) Treatments are designed to help youth process traumatic exposures manage trauma-related distress and develop effective coping strategies and skills These treatments are typically delivered by trained professionals in a one-on-one or group setting and over the course of 12 or more sessions Referrals may come from social services schools or other local community organizations Treatment is often provided to children at varying ages and stages of development and as such may engage both the child and caregiver in the treatment process

Treatment to prevent problem behavior and further involvement in violence simultaneously addresses multiple risk factors and builds supports at home and in the community These approaches develop youthrsquos social and problem-solving skills provide youth with therapeutic services to address behavioral and emotional issues offer families therapeutic services to reduce conflict improve communication and enhance parentsrsquo management and supervision of youth49219220 The goal of these supports is to assist youth and families in making significant changes in their behavior in order to prevent youth from engaging in future acts of violence Referrals may come from the juvenile justice system schools or other community organizations working with young people and families who have many risk factors for youth violence Programs are often delivered by trained clinicians in the home or a clinic setting and can be administered to individual families or groups of families Programs typically include multiple components such as individual counseling of youth family counseling parent training and school consultation


Hospital-community partnerships are intended to strengthen connections between the acute treatment of violence-related injuries and community assistance in order to prevent future injuries and health risk behaviors225 These approaches provide support to youth shortly after receiving care in emergency departments for acute issues The youth served by these approaches and the length and content of the program vary based on the model used Typically these programs involve brief interventions to develop skills and risk awareness needs assessments and connection to case-management services Motivational interviewing to engage youth and encourage behavior change components to address peer norms about risk behaviors and ways to manage life stressors and situations post-injury are elements of these interventions226

Potential Outcomesbull Reductions in victimization and perpetration of violencebull Reductions in nonviolent and violent crimebull Reductions in arrests and recidivismbull Reductions in gang involvementbull Reductions in out-of-home placementsbull Reductions in siblingsrsquo criminal behaviorbull Reductions in teen dating violencebull Reductions in child abusebull Reductions in substance usebull Reductions in symptoms of PTSD depression and behavioral problemsbull Increases in school attendance and homework completionbull Increases in positive parenting and family management practices (eg monitoring and supervision)bull Improvements in family relationships and communication

EvidenceA large body of evidence highlights the importance and benefits of intervening with youth who have histories of violence crime and delinquency exposures

Treatment to lessen the harms of violence exposures such as Trauma-Focused Cognitive Behavioral Therapyreg (TF-CBT) is effective in reducing symptoms of PTSD depression and behavioral problems as well as strengthening positive parenting practices221227 TF-CBT was originally designed to address symptoms associated with sexual abuse and has been adapted to treat other traumas including witnessing community or domestic violence which are important risk factors for youth violence228 Another example Cognitive Behavioral Intervention for Trauma in Schools (CBITS) is designed for youth ages 10ndash15229 This program addresses treatment barriers such as stigma and access to services by offering the treatment in school settings but has also been implemented in community settings with a range of populations (eg ethnic minority immigrant low and middle-income) The treatment is associated with improvements in symptoms of PTSD and depression and parent-reported behavioral problems230

Treatment to prevent problem behavior and further involvement in violence The benefits of therapeutic interventions for young people with histories of violence crime and delinquency have been documented in numerous reviews49219220 One meta-analysis of interventions for youth with a history of criminal offenses found that relative to controls juveniles who received treatment had an average 12 decrease in future violence and crime220 Across studies larger effects were found for more serious offenders (eg history of both person and property offenses) than less serious offenders and when the treatments were longer However the effects of individual programs varied with some programs having more substantial impacts (eg 40 reduction in recidivism) and others associated with no effects or an increase in recidivism Examples of programs demonstrating benefits for participating youth and families include Functional Family Therapy (FFT) Multidimensional Treatment Foster Care (MTFC) and Multisystemic Therapyreg (MST)


FFT is a short-term family-focused program that strengthens parent-child communication and relationships and helps families set clear expectations and use consequences to improve youthrsquos behavior Evaluations of FFT have shown significantly lower recidivism in misdemeanor and felony offenses among participating youth relative to youth receiving only probation during adolescence (11 versus 67) and young adulthood (9 versus 41)231232 Other evaluations have replicated the impact on recidivism in domestic and international samples and also demonstrated other positive outcomes including stronger family communication improved family mental health reduced court involvement of siblings and lower substance use by youth233-235

MTFC includes short-term placements of chronically delinquent youth with extensively trained foster parents family therapy for biological parents and behavioral and academic supports to youth A systematic review of therapeutic foster care approaches such as MTFC demonstrates an approximate 72 reduction in violent crimes among participants236 Relative to youth in usual care services MTFC participants also had significantly lower self-reported violence and fewer referrals for violent crime (5 versus 24) two years post intervention237 Other benefits include lower substance use improvement in family management practices and stronger school attendance and homework completion238239

MST is an intensive multi-component program for chronically delinquent and violent youth that engages the youthrsquos entire social network (eg family school and teachers neighborhood friends) in order to reduce risks and improve protective factors MST has been evaluated in numerous trials with samples of chronic and violent juveniles240 These studies demonstrate significant long-term reductions in re-arrests (reduced by a median of 42) and out-of-home placements (reduced by a median of 54) as well as beneficial impacts on family functioning and positive parenting practices youthrsquos substance use youthrsquos behavioral and mental health youthrsquos gang involvement and siblingrsquos criminal behavior240241 For example MST participants relative to youth receiving individual therapy had fewer violent felony arrests approximately 22 years later (43 versus 155) and the siblings of these participants had fewer arrests for any crime (433 versus 72) and felonies (15 versus 34) approximately 25 years later242243 Other benefits include improvements in positive parenting practices reductions in child abuse lower substance use and community cost savings240

Hospital-community partnerships The implementation of brief emergency department interventions is growing across the United States244 Some of these interventions have also been rigorously evaluated to assess their effects on revictimization substance use further involvement in crime and violence and rates of entry or re-entry into the criminal justice system245-247 For instance SafERteens is an emergency department intervention for youth who present with violence or alcohol use problems that uses motivating interviewing techniques to increase problem recognition and skills including conflict resolution alcohol refusal and anger management Evaluations of SafERteens demonstrate that participating youth relative to controls had significant reductions in perpetration and victimization of peer violence that were maintained one-year following the intervention248 Additional program benefits include reductions in alcohol use and dating violence victimization246249 SafERteens has been adapted to include content applicable to youth regardless of their history of violence or alcohol use and an evaluation of the adapted model (Project SYNC) also demonstrated a significant decrease in the frequency of perpetrating violence and an increase in self-efficacy to avoid fighting among participating youth relative to controls250 An evaluation of the Caught in the Crossfire program in Oakland California yielded positive outcomes on youthsrsquo involvement in crime During the six-month post-injury evaluation period the intervention youth were 70 less likely to be arrested for any offense and 60 less likely to have had any involvement in the criminal justice system compared with controls245


Benefits Relative to CostsA robust evidence base of effective prevention approaches has enabled researchers to systematically assess the benefits relative to costs of many youth violence prevention activities Many prevention programs and policies presented in this technical package have been shown in one or more studies to have significant preventive effects on youth violence or risk and protective factors for youth violence as well as have economic benefits that exceed implementation costs7678-80 Published cost-benefit estimates can vary as researchers and states calculating the economic benefits of programs can differ in their methods such as focusing on a single program versus multiple programs the rigor of included research and costs and outcomes considered251252 The table below includes examples of benefit-cost information for some of the programs in this technical package based on Washington Statersquos methodology of estimating cost-benefits Washington Statersquos approach considers program impacts on factors and systems including future labor market earnings criminal justice costs education system costs and health care expenses

Estimates of Benefits Relative to CostsEvidence-based ApproachProgram Benefits per $1 of costNurse Family Partnershipreg $161

The Incredible Yearsreg ndash Parent $165

Strengthening Families 10ndash14 $500

Early Childhood Education Programs (state and district) $505

Good Behavior Game $6418

Life Skillsreg Training $1725

Mentoring (school-based) $1485 (with volunteer cost)$2386 (taxpayer only)

Functional Family Therapy $651

Multidimensional Treatment Foster Care $170

Multisystemic Therapyreg $174

Dollar estimates by Washington State Institute for Public Policy are in 2015 dollars and are specific to the state of Washington Estimates are likely to vary across states and communities The benefit-cost estimates are continually updated and cost estimates presented are based on information published by Washington State Institute for Public Policy as of September 2016 The latest information is available online at httpwwwwsippwagov


Sector InvolvementPublic health can play an important and unique role in preventing youth violence Public health agencies which typically place prevention at the forefront of efforts and work to create broad population-level impact can bring critical leadership and resources to bear on this problem1253 For example these agencies can serve as a convener bringing together partners and stakeholders to plan prioritize and coordinate youth violence prevention activities Public health agencies are also well positioned to collect and disseminate data implement preventive measures evaluate programs and policies and track progress Although public health can play a leadership role in preventing youth violence the strategies and approaches outlined in this technical package cannot be accomplished by the public health sector alone

Other sectors vital to implementing this package include but are not limited to education health care (mental behavioral medical) justice government (local state and federal) social services business housing media and organizations that comprise the civil society sector such as faith-based organizations youth-serving organizations foundations and other non-governmental organizations Collectively these sectors can make a difference by collaborating to prevent youth violence by impacting the various contexts and underlying risks that contribute to youth violence254255 The selection and implementation of prevention strategies and approaches by these sectors can also be informed and strengthened by youth families and other community adults all of whom have important roles in preventing youth violence115

The strategies and approaches described in this technical package are summarized in the Appendix along with the relevant sectors that are well positioned to lead implementation efforts For instance the social services education and public health sectors are vital for the implementation and continued provision of Quality Education Early in Life As the lead sector in implementing programs such as Child-Parent Centers and Early Head Start throughout the country the social services sector is helping to ensure that families and communities receive the skills and services necessary to promote the physical cognitive social and emotional development of children thereby preparing youth for long-term academic success and positive behavioral and health outcomes Some of these programs extend into the elementary school years making the education sector an important partner in prevention The public health sector can play a vital role by educating communities and other sectors about the importance of ensuring early childhood education and continuing research that documents the benefits of early childhood education on health and development family well-being and youth violence prevention as this evidence is important in making the case for continued support of these programs for children and families in need

The approaches and programs that Strengthen Youthrsquos Skills are often implemented in the education setting making education an important sector for implementation Public health departments across the country often work in partnership with school districts to implement and evaluate prevention programs in school settings Some of these programs may also be suitable for delivery in community settings and local and state public health departments can also play a leadership role in implementing and evaluating these programs in other settings Programs to Promote Family Environments that Support Healthy Development are implemented in a variety of settings and involve the collaborative work of public health community organizations and education As with other prevention programs local and state public health departments can bring partners together to plan prioritize and coordinate prevention efforts and play a leadership role in evaluating these programs and tracking their impact on health behavioral and other outcomes

Community organizations and education are well positioned to lead and implement approaches and programs that Connect Youth to Caring Adults and Activities These sectors can help identify youth with known risk factors such as academic behavior or family problems and tailor programming to best meet the needs of these youth and their families Business housing and government entities on the other hand are in the best position to implement policies and programs that Create Protective Community Environments These are the sectors that can more directly address some of the community-level risks and environmental contexts that make youth violence more likely to occur Public health can play an important role by gathering and synthesizing information working with other agencies within their state or local governments in supporting policy and other approaches and evaluating the effectiveness of measures taken

This technical package includes a number of therapeutic programs as well as interventions delivered in hospital settings designed to Intervene to Lessen Harms and Prevent Future Risk The health care social services and justice sectors can work collaboratively to support young people and their families to prevent and address the harms of violence exposures decrease recidivism and reduce the potential for the escalation in crime and violence and serious violence-related injury or death The intensity and multiple activities of these interventions benefit from the expertise of licensed and trained professionals Coordination of supports across various service providers and community organizations is also critical

Regardless of the strategy action by many sectors will be necessary for the successful implementation of this technical package In this regard all sectors can play an important and influential role in helping to prevent youth violence


Monitoring and evaluation are necessary components of the public health approach to prevention


Monitoring and EvaluationMonitoring and evaluation are necessary components of the public health approach to prevention Timely and reliable data are necessary to monitor youth violence and its related risk and protective factors and to evaluate the impact of prevention efforts Data are also necessary for prevention planning and implementation

Surveillance data help researchers and practitioners track changes in the burden of youth violence Surveillance systems exist at the national state and local levels It is important to assess the availability of surveillance data and data systems across these levels to identify and address gaps in the systems and to utilize this information when implementing and evaluating prevention activities The National Violent Death Reporting System (NVDRS) National Electronic Injury Surveillance System-All Injury Program (NEISS-AIP) and the Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System (YRBSS) are examples of surveillance systems that include data on youth violence The NVDRS is a state-based surveillance system that combines data from death certificates law enforcement reports and coroner or medical examiner reports to provide detailed information on the circumstances of violent deaths including youth homicides which can assist communities in guiding prevention approaches256 The NEISS-AIP provides nationally representative data about all types and causes of nonfatal injuries treated in US hospital emergency departments including those related to youth violence and can be used to characterize and monitor trends in nonfatal injuries involving youth and inform program and policy decisions6 The YRBSS collects information from a nationally representative sample of 9ndash12 grade students and is a key resource in monitoring health-risk behaviors among youth including physical fighting on and off school property bullying and weapon carrying257 The YRBSS data are obtained from a national school-based survey conducted by CDC as well as state territorial tribal and large urban school district surveys conducted by education and health agencies

National state and local data about juvenilersquos violent offenses victimization and involvement with the justice system are also available from the Department of Justicersquos Bureau of Justice Statistics the Federal Bureau of Investigation Uniform Crime Reports and the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Statistical Briefing Book9258259 State and local data from police incident reports 911 calls ambulance and medical services and school disciplinary reports may also be available Many communities and schools also conduct surveys about youthrsquos behavior and the strengths and needs of organizations serving youth to monitor youth violence and to inform ongoing and future prevention activities

It is important at all levels (national state and local) to track progress of prevention efforts and evaluate the impact of those efforts including the impact of this technical package Evaluation data produced through program and policy implementation and monitoring are essential to knowing what does and does not work to affect rates of youth violence and associated risk and protective factors Theories of change and logic models that identify short intermediate and long-term outcomes are an important part of program and policy evaluation Understanding how approaches are being implemented and what implementation conditions result in the best outcomes can inform the refinement of a communityrsquos prevention activities over time

The evidence base for youth violence prevention has advanced greatly over the last few decades resulting in strong evidence for strategies that address many individual and relationship risk and protective factors More research is needed to strengthen the evidence for strategies that address community risk and protective factors for violence reduce minorsrsquo inappropriate access to and use of weapons and youthrsquos risk for lethal violence8890 Most existing evaluations focus on approaches implemented in isolation However research is growing about the likely synergistic effects of using a combination of the strategies and approaches many of which are included in this package and results are encouraging82260 Continued research is needed to understand the extent to which combinations of strategies and approaches result in greater reductions in youth violence than individual programs practices or policies As evidence related to a strategy or approach or combination continues to grow and research gaps are filled this technical package can be refined to reflect the latest knowledge and understanding of what works to prevent youth violence

ConclusionYouth violence is a significant public health problem that results in the premature death of thousands of young people each year An additional half a million youth experience injuries that are treated in emergency departments which can leave them with serious short- and long-term physical and psychological challenges that require rehabilitation supports Violence directly or indirectly harms everyone in a community by contributing to fear of engaging in neighborhood activities impairing the ability of businesses to grow and prosper and creating financial strain on education justice and medical systems that leave communities with limited resources to achieve other community goals

The good news is that youth violence is preventable The knowledge experience and scientifically supported strategies described in this technical package can help communities prevent youth violence perpetration and victimization and achieve substantial cost benefits7680 Implementing one strategy will have benefits but may not result in long-term and wide-spread changes in an entire communityrsquos level of violence A comprehensive prevention approach is more likely to result in significant broad and lasting effects The strategies and approaches in this technical package are intended to be used in combination in a multi-level multi-sector way to prevent youth violence The package includes strategies that are in keeping with CDCrsquos emphasis on primary prevention or preventing youth violence from happening in the first place as well as those to lessen the short- and long-term harms of youth violence The hope is that multiple sectors such as public health health care education justice social services and business will use this technical package as a guide and join CDC in efforts to prevent youth violence and its consequences


The good news is that youth violence is preventable


References1 David-Ferdon C amp Simon T R (2014) Preventing youth violence Opportunities for action Atlanta GA Centers for Disease

Control and Prevention Retrieved from httpwwwcdcgovviolencepreventionyouthviolenceopportunities-for-actionhtml

2 US Department of Health and Human Services (2001) Youth violence A report of the surgeon general Rockville MD US Department of Health and Human Services Centers for Disease Control and Prevention National Center for Injury Prevention and Control Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration Center for Mental Health Services National Institutes of Health National Institute of Mental Health

3 Frieden T R (2014) Six components necessary for effective public health program implementation American Journal of Public Health 104(1) 17-22

4 Dahlberg L L amp Krug E G (2002) Violence A global public health problem In E G Krug L L Dahlberg J A Mercy A B Zwi amp R Lozano (Eds) World report on violence and health (pp 1-56) Geneva Switzerland World Health Organization

5 Mercy J Butchart A Farrington D amp Cerdaacute M (2002) Youth violence In E G Krug L L Dahlberg J A Mercy A B Zwi amp R Lozano (Eds) World report on violence and health (pp 25-56) Geneva Switzerland World Health Organization

6 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2016) Web-based Injury Statistics Query and Reporting System (WISQARS) Atlanta GA Centers for Disease Control and Prevention National Center for Injury Prevention and Control Retrieved from httpwwwcdcgovinjurywisqars

7 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2016) Youth online High school YRBS Atlanta GA Centers for Disease Control and Prevention National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion Retrieved from httpwwwcdcgovhealthyyouthdatayrbs

8 David-Ferdon C Dahlberg L L amp Kegler S (2013) Homicide rates among persons aged 10-24 years ndash United States 1981-2010 Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 62(27) 545-548

9 Federal Bureau of Investigation (2015) Uniform crime reports 2014 Crime in the United States Washington DC US Department of Justice Federal Bureau of Investigation Retrieved from httpswwwfbigovabout-uscjisucrcrime-in-the-us2014crime-in-the-us-2014

10 Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (2016) National youth gang survey analysis Washington DC US Department of Justice Office of Justice Programs Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Retrieved from httpswwwnationalgangcentergovSurvey-Analysis

11 Arseneault L Walsh E Trzeniewski K Newcombe R amp Caspi A (2006) Bullying victimization uniquely contributes to adjustment problems in young children A nationally representative cohort study Pediatrics 118(1) 130ndash138

12 Fowler P J Tompsett C J Braciszewski J M Jacques-Tiura A J Baltes B B (2009) Community violence A meta-analysis on the effect of exposure and mental health outcomes of children and adolescents Development and Psychopathology 21(1) 227ndash259

13 Jennings W G Piquero A R amp Reingle J M (2012) On the overlap between victimization and offending A review of the literature Aggression and Violent Behavior 17(1) 16-26

14 Menard S (2002) Short- and long-term consequences of adolescent victimization Youth Violence Research Bulletin Washington DC US Department of Justice Office of Justice Programs Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Retrieved from httpswwwncjrsgovpdffiles1ojjdp191210pdf


15 National Task Force on Children Exposed to Violence Listenbee R L amp Torre J (2012) Report of the Attorney Generalrsquos National Task Force on Children Exposed to Violence Washington DC US Department of Justice Retrieved from httpswwwjusticegovdefendingchildhood

16 Miller T R Fisher D A amp Cohen M A (2001) Costs of juvenile violence Policy implications Pediatrics 107(1) 1-7

17 Welsh B C Loeber R Stevens B R Stouthamer-Loeber M Cohen M A amp Farrington D P (2008) Costs of juvenile crime in urban areas A longitudinal perspective Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice 6(1) 3-27

18 Dahlberg L L amp Simon T R (2006) Predicting and preventing youth violence Developmental pathways and risk In J R Lutzker (Ed) Preventing violence Research and evidence-based intervention strategies (pp 97-124) Washington DC American Psychological Association

19 Herrenkohl T I Maguin E Hill K G Hawkins J D Abbott R D amp Catalano R F (2000) Developmental risk factors for youth violence Journal of Adolescent Health 26(3) 176-186

20 Thornberry T P amp Krohn M D (2006) Taking stock of delinquency An overview of findings from contemporary longitudinal studies New York NY Kluwer Academic Publishers

21 World Health Organization (2015) Preventing youth violence An overview of the evidence Geneva Switzerland World Health Organization Retrieved from httpwwwwhointviolence_injury_preventionviolenceyouthyouth_violenceen

22 David-Ferdon C amp Simon T R (2012) Striving To Reduce Youth Violence Everywhere (STRYVE) The Centers for Disease Control and Preventionrsquos national initiative to prevent youth violence foundational resource Atlanta GA Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Retrieved from httpwwwcdcgovviolencepreventionpdfstryve_foundational_resource-apdf

23 Abram K M Teplin L A Charles D R Longworth S L McClelland G M amp Dulcan M K (2004) Posttraumatic stress disorder and trauma in youth in juvenile detention Archives of General Psychiatry 61(4) 403-410

24 Ferguson C J San Miguel C amp Hartley R D (2009) A multivariate analysis of youth violence and aggression The influence of family peers depression and media violence The Journal of Pediatrics 155(6) 904-908

25 Foshee V A Reyes H L M Ennett S T Suchindran C Mathias J P Karriker-Jaffe K J hellip Benefield T S (2011) Risk and protective factors distinguishing profiles of adolescent peer and dating violence perpetration Journal of Adolescent Health 48(4) 344-350

26 Hong J S amp Espelage D L (2012) A review of research on bullying and peer victimization in school An ecological system analysis Aggression and Violent Behavior 17(4) 311-322

27 Sprott J B Doob A N amp Jenkins J M (2001) Problem behaviour and delinquency in children and youth Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics Retrieved from httpswwwresearchgatenetprofileJennifer_Jenkins3publication265157555_PROBLEM_BEHAVIOUR_AND_DELINQUENCY_IN_CHILDREN_AND_YOUTHlinks54c7ae910cf238bb7d0b01f7pdf

28 Kirk D S amp Sampson R J (2013) Juvenile arrest and collateral educational damage in the transition to adulthood Sociology of Education 86(1) 36ndash62

29 McGowan A Hahn R Liberman A Crosby A Fullilove M Johnson R hellip Task Force on Community Preventive Services (2007) Effects on violence of laws and policies facilitating the transfer of juveniles from the juvenile justice system to the adult justice system A systematic review American Journal of Preventive Medicine 32(4) S7-S28

30 Mendel R A (2011) No place for kids The case for reducing juvenile incarceration Baltimore MD The Annie E Casey Foundation Retrieved from httpwwwaecforgmresourcedocaecf-NoPlaceForKidsFullReport-2011pdf


31 American Psychological Association (2013) Gun violence Prediction prevention and policy Washington DC American Psychological Association Retrieved from httpwwwapaorgpubsinforeportsgun-violence-reportpdf

32 Hardy M S (2006) Keeping children safe around guns Pitfalls and promises Aggression and Violent Behavior 11(4) 352-366

33 Farrington D P Loeber R amp Ttofi M M (2012) Risk and protective factors for offending In B C Welsh amp D P Farrington (Eds) The Oxford handbook of crime prevention (pp 46-69) New York NY Oxford University Press

34 Malik S Sorenson S B amp Aneshensel C S (1997) Community and dating violence among adolescents Perpetration and victimization Journal of Adolescent Health 21(5) 291-302

35 Maguin E Hawkins J D Catalano R F Hill K Abbott R amp Herrenkohl T (1995 November) Risk factors measured at three ages for violence at age 17ndash18 Paper presented at the American Society of Criminology Boston MA

36 Sampson R amp Lauritsen J (1994) Violent victimization and offending Individual- situational- and community-level risk factors In A J Reiss amp J A Roth (Eds) Understanding and preventing violence vol 3 social influences (pp 1-144) Washington DC National Academy Press

37 Toomey T L Erickson D J Carlin B P Lenk K M Quick H S Jones A M amp Harwood E M (2012) The association between density of alcohol establishments and violent crime within urban neighborhoods Alcoholism Clinical amp Experimental Research 36(8) 1468-1473

38 Sampson R J Morenoff J D amp Raudenbush S (2005) Social anatomy of racial and ethnic disparities in violence American Journal of Public Health 95(2) 224-232

39 Sharkey P T amp Sampson R J (2015) Violence cognition and neighborhood inequality in America In R K Schutt L J Seidman amp M S Keshavan (Eds) Social neuroscience Brain mind and society (pp 320-329) Cambridge MA Harvard University Press

40 Zimmerman G M amp Messner S F (2013) Individual family background and contextual explanations of racial and ethnic disparities in youthsrsquo exposure to violence American Journal of Public Health 103(3) 435-442

41 Hall J E Simon T R Mercy J A Loeber R Farrington D P amp Lee R D (2012) Centers for Disease Control and Preventionrsquos expert panel on protective factors for youth violence perpetration Background and overview American Journal of Preventive Medicine 43(2) S1ndashS7

42 Kim B E Gilman A B Hill K G amp Hawkins J D (2016) Examining protective factors against violence among high-risk youth Findings from the Seattle Social Development Project Journal of Criminal Justice 45 19-25

43 Ttofi M M Farrington D P Piquero A R amp DeLisi M (2016) Protective factors against offending and violence Results from prospective longitudinal studies Journal of Criminal Justice 45 1-3

44 Resnick M D Ireland M amp Borowsky I (2004) Youth violence perpetration What protects What predicts Findings from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health Journal of Adolescent Health 35(5) 424e1-424e10

45 Stoddard S A Whiteside L Zimmerman M A Cunningham R M Chermack S T amp Walton M A (2013) The relationship between cumulative risk and promotive factors and violent behavior among urban adolescents American Journal of Community Psychology 51(1-2) 57-65

46 Bilukha O Hahn R Crosby A Fullilove M Liberman A Moscicki E hellip Task Force on Community Preventive Services (2005) The effectiveness of early childhood home visitation in preventing violence A systematic review American Journal of Preventive Medicine 28(2S1) 11ndash39


47 Burrus B Leeks K D Sipe T A Dolina S Soler R E Elder E W hellip Community Preventive Services Task Force (2012) Person-to-person interventions targeted to parents and other caregivers to improve adolescent health A community guide systematic review American Journal of Preventive Medicine 42(3) 316-326

48 Derzon J H (2010) The correspondence of family features with problem aggressive criminal and violent behavior A meta-analysis Journal of Experimental Criminology 6(3) 263-292

49 Farrington D P amp Welsh B C (2003) Family-based prevention of offending A meta-analysis Australian amp New Zealand Journal of Criminology 36(2) 127-151

50 Mercy J A amp Saul J (2009) Creating a healthier future through early interventions for children Journal of the American Medical Association 301(21) 262-264

51 Piquero A R Farrington D P Welsh B C Tremblay R amp Jennings W G (2009) Effects of familyparent training programs on antisocial behavior and delinquency Journal of Experimental Criminology 5(2) 83-120

52 Piquero A R Jennings W G Diamond B Farrington D P Tremblay R E Welsh B C amp Gonzalez J M R (2016) A meta-analysis update on the effects of early familyparent training programs on antisocial behavior and delinquency Journal of Experimental Criminology 12(2) 229-248

53 DuBois D L Portillo N Rhodes J E Silverthorn N amp Valentine C (2011) How effective are mentoring programs for youth A systematic assessment of the evidence Psychological Science in the Public Interest 312(2) 57-91

54 Hurd N M Zimmerman M A amp Xue Y (2009) Negative adult influences and the protective effects of role models A study with urban adolescents Journal of Youth and Adolescence 38(6) 777-789

55 Riggs N R amp Greenberg M T (2004) After-school youth development programs A developmental-ecological model of current research Clinical Child and Family Review 7(3) 177-190

56 Crowe T D (2000) Crime prevention through environmental design Applications of architectural design and space management concepts Boston MA Butterworth-Heinemann

57 Lorenc T Petticrew M Whitehead M Neary D Clayton S Wright K hellip Renton A (2013) Environmental interventions to reduce fear of crime Systematic review of effectiveness Systematic Reviews 2(30) 1-10

58 MacDonald J M Stokes R amp Bluthenthal R (2010) The role of community context in business district revitalization strategies Public Performance amp Management Review 33(3) 436-458

59 Ellen I G OrsquoRegan K M amp Voicu I (2009) Siting spillovers and segregation A reexamination of the Low Income Housing Tax Credit Program In E L Glaeser amp J M Quigley (Eds) Housing Markets and the Economy Risk Regulation and Policy (pp 233-267) Cambridge MA Lincoln Institute of Land Policy

60 Milam A J Buggs S A Debra C Furr-Holden M Leaf P J Bradshaw C P amp Webster D (2016) Changes in attitudes toward guns and shootings following Implementation of the Baltimore Safe Streets intervention Journal of Urban Health 93(4) 609-626

61 Morenoff J D Sampson R J amp Raudenbush S W (2001) Neighborhood inequality collective efficacy and the spatial dynamics of urban violence Criminology 39(3) 517-559

62 Reese L R Vera E M Simon T R amp Ikeda R M (2000) The role of families and care givers as risk and protective factors in preventing youth violence Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review 3(1) 61-77


63 Sampson R J Morenoff J D amp Gannon-Rowley T (2002) Assessing ldquoneighborhood effectsrdquo Social processes and new directions in research Annual Review of Sociology 28 443-478

64 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2016) Preventing multiple forms of violence A strategic vision for connecting the dots Atlanta GA Division of Violence Prevention National Center for Injury Prevention and Control Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Retrieved from httpwwwcdcgovviolencepreventionpdfstrategic_visionpdf

65 Wilkins N Tsao B Hertz M Davis R amp Klevens J (2014) Connecting the dots an overview of the links among multiple forms of violence Atlanta GA National Center for Injury Prevention and Control Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Retrieved from httpwwwcdcgovviolencepreventionpdfconnecting_the_dots-apdf

66 Hamby S amp Grych J (2013) The web of violence Exploring connections among different forms of interpersonal violence and abuse In R J Johnson (Series Ed) Books by Marquette University Faculty (pp 1-106) New York NY Springer

67 National Scientific Council on the Developing Child (2005) Excessive stress disrupts the architecture of the developing brain Working paper No 3 Boston MA Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University Retrieved from httpdevelopingchildharvardeduresourceswp3

68 Shonkoff J P amp Phillips D A (Eds) (2000) From neurons to neighborhoods The science of early childhood development National Research Council and Institute of Medicine Washington DC National Academy Press

69 Hahm H C Lee Y Ozonoff A amp Van Wert M J (2010) The impact of multiple types of child maltreatment on subsequent risk behaviors among women during the transition from adolescence to young adulthood Journal of Youth and Adolescence 39(5) 528-540

70 Espelage D L Basile K C amp Hamburger M E (2012) Bullying perpetration and subsequent sexual violence perpetration among middle school students Journal of Adolescent Health 50(1) 60-65

71 Foshee V A Reyes H L M Vivolo-Kantor A M Basile K C Chang L Faris R amp Ennett S (2014) Bullying as a predictor of adolescent dating violence A longitudinal assessment Journal of Adolescent Health 55(3) 439-444

72 Hertz M Everett S Barrios L David-Ferdon C amp Holt M (2015) Association between bullying and health risk behaviors among high school students in the United States Journal of School Health 85(12) 833-842

73 Klomek A B Sourander A amp Gould M (2010)The association of suicide and bullying in childhood to young adulthood A review of cross-sectional and longitudinal research findings Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 55(5) 282-288

74 Nansel T Overpeck M Haynie D Ruan W amp Scheidt P (2003) Relationships between bullying and violence among US youth Archives of Pediatric amp Adolescent Medicine 157(4) 348-353

75 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2016) The guide to community preventive services The community guide Atlanta GA Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Office of Surveillance Epidemiology and Laboratory Services Retrieved from httpwwwthecommunityguideorgindexhtml

76 Center for the Study and Prevention of Violence (2016) Blueprints for violence prevention Boulder CO University of Colorado Boulder Institute of Behavioral Science Center for the Study and Prevention of Violence Retrieved from httpwwwcoloradoeducspvblueprints

77 Matjasko J L Vivolo-Kantor A M Massetti G M Holland K M Holt M K amp Cruz J D (2012) A systematic meta-review of evaluations of youth violence prevention programs Common and divergent findings from 25 years of meta-analyses and systematic reviews Aggression and Violent Behavior 17(6) 540-552


78 Cook P amp MacDonald J (2011) Public safety through private action An economic assessment of BIDs The Economics Journal 121(552) 445-462

79 Reynolds A J Temple J A White B A B Ou S amp Robertson D L (2011) Age-26 cost-benefit analysis of the Child-Parent Early Education Program Child Development 82(1) 379-404

80 Washington State Institute for Public Policy (2016) Cost-benefits results Olympia WA Washington State Institute for Public Policy Retrieved from httpwwwwsippwagovBenefitCost

81 Abt T amp Winship C (2016) What works in reducing community violence A meta-review and field study for the northern triangle Bethesda MD Democracy International Inc Retrieved from httpswwwusaidgovsitesdefaultfilesUSAID-2016-What-Works-in-Reducing-Community-Violence-Final-Reportpdf

82 Heinze J E Reischl T M Bai M Roche J S Morrel-Samuels S Cunningham R M amp Zimmerman M A (2016) A comprehensive prevention approach to reducing assault offenses and assault injuries among youth Prevention Science 17(2) 167-176

83 Wilson J J amp Howell J C (1993) Comprehensive strategy for serious chronic and violent juvenile offenders Washington DC US Department of Justice Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Retrieved from httpswwwncjrsgovpdffiles1ojjdp143453pdf

84 James-Burdumy S Dynarski M amp Deke J (2008) After-school program effects on behavior Results from the 21st Century Community Learning Centers program national evaluation Economic Inquiry 46(1) 13ndash18

85 James-Burdumy S Dynarski M amp Deke J (2007) When elementary schools stay open late Results from the national evaluation of the 21st Century Community Learning Centers program Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 29(4) 296ndash318

86 Mihalic S Huizinga D Ladika A Knight K amp Dyer C (2011) CasaStart final report Boulder CO University of Colorado Center for the Study and Prevention of Violence

87 Petrosino A Turpin-Petrosino C Hollis-Peel M E amp Lavenberg J G (2013) Scared straight and other juvenile awareness programs for preventing juvenile delinquency A systematic review Campbell Systematic Reviews 5 1-55

88 Institute of Medicine and National Research Council (2013) Priorities for research to reduce the threat of firearm-related violence Washington DC National Academy of Sciences Retrieved from httpwwwnationalacademiesorghmdReports2013Priorities-for-Research-to-Reduce-the-Threat-of-Firearm-Related-Violenceaspx

89 Tolan P H Henry D B Schoeny M S Lovegrove P amp Nichols E (2014) Mentoring programs to affect delinquency and associated outcomes of youth at risk A comprehensive meta-analytic review Journal of Experimental Criminology 10(2) 179-206

90 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2015) CDC injury center research priorities Atlanta GA Centers for Disease Control and Prevention National Center for Injury Prevention and Control Retrieved from httpwwwcdcgovinjurypdfsresearchprioritiescdc-injury-research-prioritiespdf

91 Massetti G M Holland K M amp Gorman-Smith D (2016) Implementation measurement for evidence-based violence prevention programs in communities Journal of Community Health 41(4) 881-894

92 Wilson S J Lipsey M W amp Derzon J H (2003) The effects of school-based intervention programs on aggressive behavior A meta-analysis Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 71(1) 136-149

93 Mihalic S F amp Elliott D S (2015) Evidence-based programs registry Blueprints for Healthy Youth Development Evaluation and Program Planning 48 124-131


94 Pew Charitable Trusts (2012) Better programs better results rigorous quality assurance ensures that Washington statersquos evidence-based programs produce expected results Washington DC Pew Center on the States and MacArthur Foundation Retrieved from httpwwwpewtrustsorgenresearch-and-analysisissue-briefs20120726better-programs-better-results

95 Florence C Shepherd J Brennan I amp Simon T (2014) An economic evaluation of anonymized information sharing in a partnership between health services police and local government for preventing violence-related injury Injury Prevention 20(2) 108-114

96 Florence C Shepherd J Brennan I amp Simon T (2011) Effectiveness of anonymised information sharing and use in health service police and local government partnership for preventing violence related injury Experimental study and time series analysis British Medical Journal 342 1ndash9

97 Hawkins J D Catalano R F Arthur M W Egan E Brown E C Abbott R D amp Murray D M (2008) Testing Communities That Care The rationale design and behavioral baseline equivalence of the community youth development study Prevention Science 9(3) 178-190

98 Hawkins J D Oesterle S Brown E C Abbott R D amp Catalano R (2014) Youth problem behaviors 8 years after implementing the Communities That Care prevention system A community-randomized trial JAMA Pediatrics 168(2) 122-129

99 Kuklinski M Briney J Hawkins J amp Catalano R (2011) Cost-benefit analysis of Communities That Care outcomes at eighth grade Prevention Science 13(2) 150-161

100 Quigg Z Hughes K amp Bellis M A (2012) Data sharing for prevention A case study in the development of a comprehensive emergency department injury surveillance system and its use in preventing violence and alcohol-related harms Injury Prevention 18(5) 315-320

101 Redmond C Spoth R L Shin C Schainker L M Greenberg M T amp Feinberg M (2009) Long-term protective factor outcomes of evidence-based interventions implemented by community teams through a community-university partnership Journal of Primary Prevention 30(5) 513-530

102 Spoth R L Trudeau L S Redmond C R Shin C Greenberg M T Feinberg M E amp Hyun G (2015) PROSPER partnership delivery system Effects on adolescent conduct problem behavior outcomes through 65 years past baseline Journal of Adolescence 45 44-55

103 Eckenrode J Campa M Luckey D W Henderson C R Cole R Kitzman H hellip Olds D (2010) Long-term effects of prenatal and infancy nurse home visitation on the life course of youths 19-year follow-up of a randomized trial Archives of Pediatrics amp Adolescent Medicine 164(1) 9-15

104 Olds D L Henderson C R Cole R Eckenrode J Kitzman H Luckey D hellip Powers J (1998) Long-term effects of nurse home visitation on childrenrsquos criminal and antisocial behavior 15-year follow-up of a randomized controlled trial Journal of the American Medical Association 280(14) 1238-1244

105 Reynolds A J Temple J A Robertson D L amp Mann E A (2001) Long-term effects of an early childhood intervention on educational achievement and juvenile arrest A 15-year follow-up of low-income children in public schools Journal of the American Medical Association 285(18) 2339-2346

106 Basile K C DeGue S Jones K Freire K Dills J Smith S G amp Raiford J L (2016) STOP SV A technical package to prevent sexual violence Atlanta GA National Center for Injury Prevention and Control Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Retrieved from httpwwwcdcgovviolencepreventionpdfsv-prevention-technical-packagepdf


107 Fortson B L Klevens J Merrick M T Gilbert L K amp Alexander S P (2016) Preventing child abuse and neglect A technical package for policy norm and programmatic activities Atlanta GA National Center for Injury Prevention and Control Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Retrieved from httpwwwcdcgovviolencepreventionpdfcan-prevention-technical-packagepdf

108 Niolon P H Kearns M Dills J Rambo K Irving S Armstead T amp Gilbert L (forthcoming 2017) Eliminating intimate partner violence across the lifespan A technical package to prevent intimate partner violence including teen dating violence Atlanta GA National Center for Injury Prevention and Control Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

109 Stone D M Holland K M Bartholow B Crosby A E Davis S amp Wilkins N (forthcoming 2017) Preventing suicide A technical package of policy programs and practices Atlanta GA National Center for Injury Prevention and Control Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

110 DeVore E R amp Ginsburg K R (2005) The protective effects of good parenting on adolescents Current Opinion in Pediatrics 17(4) 460-465

111 National Scientific Council on the Developing Child (2004) Young children develop in an environment of relationships Working paper No1 Boston MA Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University Retrieved from httpdevelopingchildharvardeduwp-contentuploads200404Young-Children-Develop-in-an-Environment-of-Relationshipspdf

112 Hawkins J D Herrenkohl T I Farrington D P Brewer D Catalano R F Harachi T W amp Cothern L (2000) Predictors of youth violence Washington DC US Department of Justice Office of Justice Programs Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Retrieved from httpswwwncjrsgovhtmlojjdpjjbul2000_04_5contentshtml

113 Hoeve M Dubas J S Eichelsheim V I Van der Laan P H Smeenk W amp Gerris J R (2009) The relationship between parenting and delinquency A meta-analysis Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 37(6) 749-775

114 Avellar S Paulsell D Sama-Miller E Del Grosso P Akers L amp Kleinman R (2016) Home visiting evidence of effectiveness review Executive summary Office of Planning Research and Evaluation Administration for Children and Families US Department of Health and Human Services Washington DC Retrieved from httphomveeacfhhsgov

115 Lundahl B Risser H J amp Lovejoy M C (2006) A meta-analysis of parent training Moderators and follow-up effects Clinical Psychology Review 26(1) 86-104

116 OrsquoBrien M amp Daley D (2011) Self‐help parenting interventions for childhood behaviour disorders A review of the evidence Child Care Health and Development 37(5) 623-637

117 Sweet M A amp Appelbaum M I (2004) Is home visiting an effective strategy A meta‐analytic review of home visiting programs for families with young children Child Development 75(5) 1435-1456

118 Olds D L Henderson C R amp Kitzman H (1994) Does prenatal and infancy nurse home visitation have enduring effects on qualities of parental caregiving and child health at 25 to 50 months of life Pediatrics 93(1) 89-98

119 Olds D L Eckenrode J Henderson C R Kitzman H Powers J Cole R hellip Luckey D (1997) Long-term effects of home visitation on maternal life course and child abuse and neglect Fifteen-year follow-up of a randomized trial Journal of the American Medical Association 278(8) 637-643

120 Menting A T de Castro B O amp Matthys W (2013) Effectiveness of the Incredible Years parent training to modify disruptive and prosocial child behavior A meta-analytic review Clinical Psychology Review 33(8) 901-913

121 Webster-Stratton C (2016) The Incredible Yearsreg series A developmental approach In M J Van Ryzin K L Kumpfer G M Fosco amp M T Greenberg (Eds) Family-based prevention programs for children and adolescents Theory research and large-scale dissemination (pp 42-67) New York NY Psychology Press


122 Bank L Marlowe J H Reid J B Patterson G R amp Weinrott M R (1991) A comparative evaluation of parent-training interventions for families of chronic delinquents Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 19(1) 15-33

123 Forgatch M S Patterson G R DeGarmo D S amp Beldavs Z (2009) Testing the Oregon delinquency model with nine-year follow-up of the Oregon Divorce Study Development and Psychopathology 21(5) 637-660

124 Patterson G R Forgatch M S amp DeGarmo D S (2010) Cascading effects following intervention Development and Psychopathology 22(4) 949-970

125 Wachlarowicz M Snyder J Low S Forgatch M S amp DeGarmo D A (2012) The moderating effects of parent antisocial characteristics on the effects of Parent Management Training - Oregon (PMTO) Prevention Science 13(3) 229-240

126 Spoth R L Redmond C amp Shin C (2000) Reducing adolescentsrsquo aggressive and hostile behaviors Randomized trial effects of a brief family intervention 4 years past baseline Archives of Pediatrics amp Adolescent Medicine 154(12) 1248-1257

127 Spoth R Redmond C amp Lepper H (1999) Alcohol initiation outcomes of universal family focused preventive interventions One-and two-year follow-ups of a controlled study Journal of Studies on Alcohol 13 103-110

128 Spoth R Redmond C amp Shin C (1998) Direct and indirect latent-variable parenting outcomes of two universal family-focused preventive interventions Extending a public health-oriented research base Journal of Consulting amp Clinical Psychology 66(2) 385-399

129 Spoth R L Redmond C amp Shin C (2001) Randomized trial of brief family interventions for general populations Adolescent substance use outcomes 4 years following baseline Journal of Consulting amp Clinical Psychology 69(4) 627-642

130 Lochman JE amp Wells KC (2004) The Coping Power program for preadolescent aggressive boys and their parents Outcome effects at the one-year follow-up Journal of Consulting amp Clinical Psychology 72(4) 571-578

131 Lochman J E amp Wells K C (2003) Effectiveness of the Coping Power Program and of classroom intervention with aggressive children Outcomes at a one-year follow-up Behavior Therapy 34(4) 493-515

132 Lochman J E Wells K C Qu L amp Chen L (2013) Three year follow-up of Coping Power intervention effects Evidence of neighborhood moderation Prevention Science 14(4) 364-376

133 Pantin H Coatsworth J D Feaster D J Newman F L Briones E Prado G hellip Szapocznik J (2003) Familias Unidas The efficacy of an intervention to promote parental investment in Hispanic immigrant families Prevention Science 4(3) 189-201

134 Pantin H Prado G Lopez B Huang S Tapia M Schwartz S hellip Branchini J (2009) A randomized controlled trial of Familias Unidas for Hispanic adolescents with behavior problems Psychosomatic Medicine 71(9) 987-995

135 Prado G Cordova D Huang S Estrada Y Rosen A Bacio G A hellip McCollister K (2012) The efficacy of Familias Unidas on drug and alcohol outcomes for Hispanic delinquent youth Main effects and interaction effects by parental stress and social support Drug and Alcohol Dependence 125 S18-S25

136 Braveman P amp Gottlieb L (2014) The social determinants of health Itrsquos time to consider the causes of the causes Public Health Reports 129(suppl 2) 19-31

137 Manning M Homel R amp Smith C (2010) A meta-analysis of the effects of early developmental prevention programs in at-risk populations on non-health outcomes in adolescence Children and Youth Services Review 32(4) 506-519

138 Hawkins J D Catalano R F Kosterman R Abbott R amp Hill K G (1999) Preventing adolescent health-risk behaviors by strengthening protection during childhood Archives of Pediatrics amp Adolescent Medicine 153(3) 226-234


139 Mersky J P Topitzes J D amp Reynolds S W (2011) Maltreatment prevention through early childhood intervention A confirmatory evaluation of the Chicago child-parent center preschool program Children amp Youth Services Review 33(8) 1454-1463

140 Higgins S amp Katsipataki M (2015) Evidence from meta-analysis about parental involvement in education which supports their childrenrsquos learning Journal of Childrenrsquos Services 10(3) 280-290

141 Reynolds A J amp Robertson D L (2003) School-based early intervention and later child maltreatment in the Chicago Longitudinal Study Child Development 74(1) 3-26

142 Chicago Public Schools (2014) Child Parent Center Retrieved from httpcpseduSchoolsEarlyChildhoodPagesChildparentcenteraspx

143 Reynolds A J Temple J A Ou S R Robertson D L Mersky J P Topitzes J W amp Niles M D (2007) Effects of a school-based early childhood intervention on adult health and well-being A 19-year follow-up of low-income families Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine 161(8) 730-739

144 Love J M Kisker E E Ross C Constantine J Boller K Brooks-Gunn J hellip Vogel C (2005) The effectiveness of Early Head Start for 3-year-old children and their parents Lessons for policy and programs Developmental Psychology 41(6) 885-901

145 Green B L Ayoub C Bartlett J D Von Ende A Furrer C Chazan-Cohen R hellip Klevens J (2014) The effect of Early Head Start on child welfare system involvement A first look at longitudinal child maltreatment outcomes Children and Youth Services Review 42 127-135

146 Harden B J Chazan-Cohen R Raikes H amp Vogel C (2012) Early Head Start home visitation The role of implementation in bolstering program benefits Journal of Community Psychology 40(4) 438-455

147 Catalano R F Berglund M L Ryan J A Lonczak H S amp Hawkins J D (2004) Positive youth development in the United States Research findings on evaluations of positive youth development programs The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 591(1) 98-124

148 Dahlberg L L (1998) Youth violence in the United States Major trends risk factors and prevention approaches American Journal of Preventive Medicine 14(4) 259-272

149 Sullivan T N Farrell A D Bettencourt A F amp Helms S W (2008) Core competencies and the prevention of youth violence New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development 2008(122) 33-46

150 Durlak J A Weissberg R P Dymnicki A B Taylor R D amp Schellinger K B (2011) The impact of enhancing studentsrsquo social and emotional learning A meta‐analysis of school‐based universal interventions Child Development 82(1) 405-432

151 Hahn R Fuqua-Whitley D Wethington H Lowy J Crosby A Fullilove M hellip Task Force on Community Preventive Services (2007) Effectiveness of universal school-based programs to prevent violent and aggressive behavior A systematic review American Journal of Preventive Medicine 33(2) S114-S129

152 Payton J Weissberg R P Durlak J A Dymnicki A B Taylor R D Schellinger K B amp Pachan M (2008) The Positive impact of social and emotional learning for kindergarten to eighth-grade students Findings from three scientific reviews Chicago IL Collaborative for Academic Social and Emotional Learning Retrieved from httpfilesericedgovfulltextED505370pdf

153 Lewis K M Bavarian N Snyder F J Acock A Day J DuBois D L Ji P Schure M B Silverthorn N Vuchinich S amp Flay B R (2012) Direct and mediated effects of a social-emotional and character development program on adolescent substance use The International Journal of Emotional Education 4(1) 56-78

154 Polanin J R Espelage D L amp Pigott T D (2012) A meta-analysis of school-based bullying prevention programsrsquo effects on bystander intervention behavior School Psychology Review 41(1) 47-65


155 Ttofi M M amp Farrington D P (2011) Effectiveness of school-based programs to reduce bullying A systematic and meta-analytic review Journal of Experimental Criminology 7(1) 27ndash56

156 Dolan L J Kellam S G Brown C H Werthamer-Larsson L Rebok G W Mayer L S hellip Wheeler L T (1993) The short-term impact of two classroom-based preventive interventions on aggressive and shy behaviors and poor achievement Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology 14(3) 317-345

157 Kellam S G Brown C H Poduska J M Ialongo N S Wang W Toyinbo P hellip Wilcox H C (2008) Effects of a universal classroom behavior management program in first and second grades on young adult behavioral psychiatric and social outcomes Drug and Alcohol Dependence 95(1) S5-S28

158 Kellam S G Rebok G W Ialongo N amp Mayer L S (1994) The course and malleability of aggressive behavior from early first grade into middle school Results of a developmental epidemiologically-based preventive trial Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 35(2) 259-282

159 Petras H Kellam S G Brown C H Muthen B O Ialongo N S amp Poduska J M (2008) Developmental epidemiological courses leading to antisocial personality disorder and violent criminal behavior Effects by young adulthood of a universal preventive intervention in first- and second-grade classrooms Drug and Alcohol Dependence 95(Suppl 1) 45-59

160 Wilcox H C Kellam S G Brown C H Poduska J M Iallongo N S Wang W amp Anthony J C (2008) The impact of two universal randomized first- and second-grade classroom interventions on young adult suicide ideation and attempts Drug and Alcohol Dependence 95(Suppl 1) S60-S73

161 Greenberg MT amp Kuscheacute CA (2006) Building social and emotional competence The PATHS curriculum In S R Jimerson amp M Furlong (Eds) Handbook of school violence and school safety From research to practice (pp 395-412) Mahwah NJ Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers

162 Crean H F amp Johnson D B (2013) Promoting Alternative THinking Strategies (PATHS) and elementary school aged childrenrsquos aggression Results from a cluster randomized trial American Journal of Community Psychology 52(1-2) 56-72

163 Schonfeld D J Adams R E Fredstrom B K Weissberg R P Gilman R Voyce C hellip Speese-Linehan D (2015) Cluster-randomized trial demonstrating impact on academic achievement of elementary social-emotional learning School Psychology Quarterly 30(3) 406-420

164 Botvin G J Griffin K W amp Nichols T D (2006) Preventing youth violence and delinquency through a universal school-based prevention approach Prevention Science 7(4) 403-408

165 Frey K S Hirschstein M Edstrom L amp Snell J (2009) Observed reductions in school bullying nonbullying aggression and destructive bystander behavior A longitudinal evaluation Journal of Educational Psychology 101(2) 466ndash481

166 Brown E C Low S Smith B H amp Haggerty K P (2011) Outcomes from a school-randomized control trial of Steps to Respect School Psychology Review 40(3) 423-443

167 Loumlsel F amp Farrington D P (2012) Direct protective and buffering protective factors in the development of youth violence American Journal of Preventive Medicine 43(2) S8-S23

168 DuBois D L amp Karcher M J (Eds) (2014) Handbook of youth mentoring Second edition Thousand Oaks CA Sage Publications

169 Jolliffe D amp Farrington D P (2007) A rapid evidence assessment of the impact of mentoring on re-offending A summary London Home Office Retrieved from httpwwwyouthmentoringorgnzcontentdocsHome_Office_Impact_of_mentoringpdf


170 Sickmund M amp Puzzanchera C (Eds) (2014) Juvenile offenders and victims 2014 national report Pittsburgh PA National Center for Juvenile Justice Retrieved from httpwwwojjdpgovojstatbbnr2014

171 Durlak J A Weissberg R P amp Pachan M (2010) A meta-analysis of after-school programs that seek to promote personal and social skills in children and adolescents American Journal of Community Psychology 45(3-4) 294ndash309

172 Gottfredson D C Cross A amp Souleacute D A (2007) Distinguishing characteristics of effective and ineffective afterschool programs to prevent delinquency and victimization Criminology amp Public Policy 6(2) 601-631

173 Big Brothers Big Sisters of America (2016) 110 years of history Tampa FL Big Brothers Big Sisters of America Retrieved from httpwwwbbbsorgsitec9iILI3NGKhK6Fb5960955kE56CStarting_something_since_1904htm

174 Grossman J B amp Tierney J P (1998) Does mentoring work An impact study of the Big Brothers Big Sisters program Evaluation Review 22(3) 403-426

175 Herrera C Grossman J B Kauh T J amp McMaken J (2011) Mentoring in schools An impact study of Big Brothers Big Sisters school-based mentoring Child Development 82(1) 346-361

176 Chan C S Rhodes J E Howard W J Lowe S R Schwartz S E O amp Herrera C (2013) Pathways of influence in school-based mentoring The mediating role of parent and teacher relationships Journal of School Psychology 51(1) 129-142

177 Roth J L Malone L M amp Brooks-Gunn J (2010) Does the amount of participation in afterschool programs relate to developmental outcomes A review of the literature American Journal of Community Psychology 45(3-4) 310ndash324

178 Goldschmidt P Huang D amp Chinen M (2007) The long-term effects of after-school programming on educational adjustment and juvenile crime A study of the LArsquos BEST after-school program Los Angeles CA National Center for Research on Evaluation Standards and Student Testing and University of California Los Angeles Retrieved from httpwwwchapinhallorgresearchbriefafter-school-programs-and-academic-impact

179 After School Matters (2016) Program information and requirements Chicago IL After School Matters Retrieved from httpwwwafterschoolmattersorgteensprograms

180 Goerge R M Cusick G R Wasserman M amp Gladden R M (2007) After-school programs and academic impact A study of Chicagorsquos After School Matters Chicago IL Chapin Hall University of Chicago Retrieved from httpwwwchapinhallorgsitesdefaultfilespublicationsChapinHallDocument(2)_0pdf

181 Hirsch B J Hedges L V Stawicki J A amp Mekinda M A (2011) After-school programs for high school students an evaluation of After School Matters Technical report Evanston IL Northwestern University Retrieved from httpwwwsespnorthwesternedudocspublications1070224029553e7f678c09fpdf

182 Webster D W Whitehill J M Vernick J S amp Curriero F C (2013) Effects of Baltimorersquos Safe Streets program on gun violence A replication of Chicagorsquos CeaseFire program Journal of Urban Health 90(1) 27ndash40

183 Butts J A Roman C G Bostwick L amp Porter J R (2015) Cure violence A public health model to reduce gun violence Annual Review of Public Health 36 39-53

184 Astor R A Meyer H A amp Behre W J (1999) Unowned places and times Maps and interviews about violence in high schools American Educational Research Journal 36(1) 3-42

185 Bradshaw C P Milam A J Furr-Holden C D M amp Lindstrom Johnson S (2015) The School Assessment for Environmental Typology (SAfETy) An observational measure of the school environment American Journal of Community Psychology 56(3-4) 280-292


186 Johnson S L (2009) Improving the school environment to reduce school violence A review of the literature Journal of School Health 79(10) 451-465

187 Wilcox P Augustine M C amp Clayton R R (2006) Physical environment and crime and misconduct in Kentucky schools Journal of Primary Prevention 27(3) 293-313

188 Livingston M Livingston M Chikritzhs T amp Room R (2007) Changing the density of alcohol outlets to reduce alcohol-related problems Drug and Alcohol Review 26(5) 557-566

189 Massetti G M amp David-Ferdon C (2016) Preventing violence among high-risk youth and communities with economic policy and structural strategies Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 65(1) 57-60

190 MacDonald J M Golinelli D Stokes R J amp Bluthenthal R (2010) The effect of business improvement districts on the incidence of violent crime Injury Prevention 16(5) 327-332

191 Casteel C amp Peek-Asa C (2000) Effectiveness of crime prevention through environmental design (CPTED) in reducing robberies American Journal of Preventive Medicine 18(4S) 99-115

192 Bogar S amp Beyer K M (2015) Green space violence and crime A systematic review Trauma Violence amp Abuse 17(2) 160-171

193 Branas C C Cheney R A MacDonald J M Tam V W Jackson T D amp Ten Have T R (2011) A difference-in-difference analysis of health safety and greening vacant urban space American Journal of Epidemiology 174(11) 1296-1306

194 Branas C C Kondo M C Murphy S M South E C Polsky D amp MacDonald J M (2016) Urban blight remediation as a cost-beneficial solution to firearm violence American Journal of Public Health doi 102105AJPH2016303434

195 Culyba A J Jacoby S F Richmond T S Fein J A Hohl B C amp Branas C C (2016) Modifiable neighborhood features associated with adolescent homicide JAMA Pediatrics 170(5) 473-480

196 Donnelly P amp Kimble C E (1997) Community organizing environmental change and neighborhood crime Crime and Delinquency 43(4) 493-511

197 Welsh B amp Farrington D (2008) Effects of improved street lighting on crime A systematic review Campbell Systematic Reviews 4(13) 1-61

198 Center on Budget and Policy Priorities (2016) Policy basics The Earned Income Tax Credit Washington DC Center on Budget and Policy Priorities Retrieved from httpwwwcbpporgresearchfederal-taxpolicy-basics-the-earned-income-tax-credit

199 Levitie J amp Koulish J (2008) State earned income tax credits 2008 legislative update Washington DC Center on Budget and Policy Priorities Retrieved from httpwwwcbpporgcmsfa=viewampid=462

200 Waldfogel J (2004) Welfare reform and the child welfare system Children and Youth Services Review 26(10) 919-929

201 Pressman S (2011) Policies to reduce child poverty Child allowances versus tax exemptions for children Journal of Economic Issues 45(2) 323-332

202 Freedman M amp Owens E G (2011) Low income housing development and crime Journal of Urban Economics 70(2ndash3) 115-131

203 Anderson P Chisholm D amp Fuhr D C (2009) Effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of policies and programmes to reduce the harm caused by alcohol Lancet 373(9682) 2234-2246


204 Community Preventive Services Task Force (2016) Preventing excessive alcohol consumption Atlanta GA Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Office of Surveillance Epidemiology and Laboratory Services Retrieved from httpwwwthecommunityguideorgalcoholindexhtml

205 Hahn R A Middleton J C Elder R Brewer R Fielding J Naimi T S hellip Community Preventive Services Task Force (2012) Effects of alcohol retail privatization on excessive alcohol consumption and related harms A Community Guide systematic review American Journal of Preventive Medicine 42(4) 418-427

206 Masho S W Bishop D L Edmonds T amp Farrell A D (2014) Using surveillance data to inform community action The effect of alcohol sale restrictions on intentional injury-related ambulance pickups Prevention Science 15(1) 22-30

207 Duailibi S Ponicki W Grube J Pinsky I Laranjeira R amp Raw M (2007) The effect of restricting opening hours on alcohol-related violence American Journal of Public Health 97(12) 2276-2280

208 Meneacutendez P Tusell F amp Weatherburn D (2015) The effects of liquor licensing restriction on alcohol‐related violence in NSW 2008ndash13 Addiction 110(10) 1574-1582

209 Wallin E Norstrom T amp Andreasson S (2003) Alcohol prevention targeting licensed premises A study of effects on violence Journal of the Studies on Alcohol 64(2) 270-277

210 Skogan W G Hartnett S M Bump N amp Dubois J (2008) Evaluation of CeaseFiremdashChicago Evanston IL Northwestern University Retrieved from httpwwwskoganorgfilesEvaluation_of_CeaseFire-Chicago_Main_Report03-2009pdf

211 Webster D W Whitehill J M Vernick J S amp Parker E M (2012) Evaluation of Baltimorersquos Safe Streets Program Effects on attitudes participantsrsquo experiences and gun violence Baltimore MD Johns Hopkins Center for the Prevention of Youth Violence Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health Retrieved from httpwwwjhsphedunewsnews-releases2012_pdfsSafe20Streets20evaluation20finalpdf

212 Eron L D amp Huesmann L R (1990) The stability of aggressive behaviormdasheven unto the third generation In M Lewis amp S M Miller (Eds) Handbook of developmental psychopathology (pp 147-156) New York NY Springer

213 Moffitt T E Caspi A Harrington H amp Milne B J (2002) Males on the life-course-persistent and adolescent-limited antisocial pathways Follow-up at age 26 years Development and Psychopathology 14(1) 179ndash207

214 Tolan P H Gorman-Smith D amp Loeber R (2000) Developmental timing of onsets of disruptive behaviors and later delinquency of inner-city youth Journal of Child and Family Studies 9(2) 203ndash220

215 Gorman-Smith D amp Tolan P (1998) The role of exposure to community violence and developmental problems among inner-city youth Developmental Psychopathology 10(1) 101-116

216 Abram K M Washburn J J Teplin L A Emanuel K M Romero E G amp McClelland G M (2007) Posttraumatic stress disorder and psychiatric comorbidity among detained youths Psychiatric Services 58(10) 1311-1316

217 Buka S L Stichick T L Birdthistle I amp Earls F J (2001) Youth exposure to violence Prevalence risks and consequences American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 71(3) 298-310

218 Farrington D P Loeber R amp Howell J C (2012) Young adult offenders The need for more effective legislative options and justice processing Criminology amp Public Policy 11(4) 729ndash750

219 Furlong M McGilloway S Bywater T Hutchings J Smith S M amp Donnelly M (2013) Cochrane review Behavioural and cognitive‐behavioural group‐based parenting programmes for early‐onset conduct problems in children aged 3 to 12 years Evidence‐Based Child Health A Cochrane Review Journal 8(2) 318-692


220 Lipsey M W Wilson D B amp Cothern L (2000) Effective intervention for serious juvenile offenders Washington DC US Department of Justice Office of Justice Programs Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Retrieved from httpswwwncjrsgovpdffiles1ojjdp181201pdf

221 Cary C E amp McMillen J C (2012) The data behind the dissemination A systematic review of trauma-focused cognitive behavioral therapy for use with children and youth Children and Youth Services Review 34(4) 748-757

222 Child Welfare Information Gateway (2012) Trauma-focused cognitive behavioral therapy for children affected by sexual abuse or trauma Washington DC US Department of Health and Human Services Childrenrsquos Bureau Retrieved from httpswwwchildwelfaregovpubPDFstraumapdf

223 Cohen J A Mannarino A P Berliner L amp Deblinger E (2000) Trauma-focused cognitive behavioral therapy for children and adolescents An empirical update Journal of Interpersonal Violence 15(11) 1202-1223

224 Ko S J Ford J D Kassam-Adams N Berkowitz S J Wilson C Wong M hellip Layne C M (2008) Creating trauma-informed systems child welfare education first responders health care juvenile justice Professional Psychology Research and Practice 39(4) 396-404

225 Purtle J Corbin T J Rich L J amp Rich J A (2015) Hospitals as a locus for violence intervention In P D Donnelly amp C L Ward (Eds) Oxford textbook of violence prevention epidemiology evidence and policy (pp 231-238) Oxford United Kingdom Oxford University Press

226 Neville F G Goodall C A Williams D J amp Donnelly P D (2014) Violence brief interventions A rapid review Aggression and Violent Behavior 19(6) 692-698

227 de Arellano M A R Lyman D R Jobe-Shields L George P Dougherty R H Daniels A S hellip Delphin-Rittmon M E (2014) Trauma-focused cognitive behavioral therapy Assessing the evidence Psychiatric Services 65(5) 591ndash602

228 Cohen J A Mannarino A P amp Iyengar S (2011) Community treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder for children exposed to intimate partner violence Archives of Pediatrics amp Adolescent Medicine 165(1) 16-21

229 Dorsey S Briggs E C amp Woods B A (2011) Cognitive-behavioral treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder in children and adolescents Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America 20(2) 255-269

230 Stein B D Jaycox L H Kataoka S H Wong M Tu W Elliott M N amp Fink A (2003) A mental health intervention for schoolchildren exposed to violence A randomized controlled trial Journal of the American Medical Association 290(5) 603-611

231 Gordon D A Arbuthnot J Gustafson K E amp McGreen P (1988) Home-based behavioral-systems family therapy with disadvantaged juvenile delinquents American Journal of Family Therapy 16(3) 243-255

232 Gordon D A Graves K amp Arbuthnot J (1995) The effect of Functional Family Therapy for delinquents on adult criminal behavior Criminal Justice and Behavior 22(1) 60-73

233 Barton C Alexander J F Waldron H Turner C W amp Warburton J (1985) Generalizing treatment effects of Functional Family Therapy Three replications American Journal of Family Therapy 13(3) 16-26

234 Hartnett D Carr A amp Sexton T (2015) The effectiveness of Functional Family Therapy in reducing adolescent mental health risk and family adjustment difficulties in an Irish context Family Process 56(2) 287-304

235 Waldron H B Slesnick N Brody J L Turner C W amp Peterson T R (2001) Treatment outcomes for adolescent substance abuse at 4- and 7-month assessments Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 69(5) 802-813


236 Task Force on Community Preventive Services (2005) Recommendations to reduce violence through early childhood home visitation therapeutic foster care and firearm laws American Journal of Preventative Medicine 28(251) 6-10

237 Eddy J M Whaley R B amp Chamberlain P (2004) The prevention of violent behavior by chronic and serious male juvenile offenders A two-year follow-up of a randomized clinical trial Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders 12(1) 2-8

238 Fisher P A amp Gilliam K S (2012) Multidimensional treatment foster care An alternative to residential treatment for high risk children and adolescents Psychosocial Intervention 21(2) 195-203

239 Smith D K Chamberlain P amp Eddy J M (2010) Preliminary support for multidimensional treatment foster care in reducing substance use in delinquent boys Journal of Child amp Adolescent Substance Abuse 19(4) 343-358

240 Multisystemic Therapy Services (2016) Multisystemic Therapy (MST) research at a glance Published MST outcome implementation and benchmarking studies Mount Pleasant SC Multisystemic Therapy Services Retrieved from httpmstservicescomfilesoutcomestudiespdf

241 van der Stouwe T Asscher J J Stams G J J M Deković M van der Laan P H (2014) The effectiveness of Multisystemic Therapy (MST) A meta-analysis Clinical Psychology Review 34(6) 468-481

242 Sawyer A M amp Borduin C M (2011) Effects of Multisystemic Therapy through midlife A 219-year follow-up to a randomized clinical trial with serious and violent juvenile offenders Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 79(5) 643-652

243 Wagner D V Borduin C M Sawyer A M amp Dopp A R (2014) Long-term prevention of criminality in siblings of serious and violent juvenile offenders A 25-year follow-up to a randomized clinical trial of Multisystemic Therapy Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 82(3) 492-499

244 National Network of Hospital-based Violence Intervention Programs (2016) NNHVIP National Network of Hospital-based Violence Prevention Programs Oakland CA National Network of Hospital-based Violence Intervention Programs Retrieved from httpnnhviporg

245 Becker M G Hall J S Ursic C M Jain S amp Calhoun D (2004) Caught in the crossfire The effects of a peer-based intervention program for violently injured youth Journal of Adolescent Health 34(3) 177ndash183

246 Cunningham R M Whiteside L K Chermack S T Zimmerman M A Shope J T Bingham C R hellip Walton M A (2013) Dating violence Outcomes following a brief motivational interviewing intervention among at‐risk adolescents in an urban emergency department Academic Emergency Medicine 20(6) 562-569

247 Zun L S Downey L amp Rosen J (2006) The effectiveness of an ED-based violence prevention program American Journal of Emergency Medicine 24(1) 8ndash13

248 Cunningham R M Chermack S T Zimmerman M A Shope J T Bingham C R Blow F C amp Walton M A (2012) Brief motivational interviewing intervention for peer violence and alcohol use in teens One-year follow-up Pediatrics 129(6) 1083-1090

249 Walton M A Chermack S T Shope J T Bingham C R Zimmerman M A Blow F C amp Cunningham R M (2010) Effects of a brief intervention for reducing violence and alcohol misuse among adolescents A randomized controlled trial Journal of the American Medical Association 304(5) 527-535

250 Carter P M Walton M A Zimmerman M A Chermack S T Roche J S amp Cunningham R M (2016) Efficacy of a universal brief intervention for violence among urban emergency department youth Academic Emergency Medicine httpdoiorg101111acem13021


251 Drake E (2012) Reducing crime and criminal justice costs Washington statersquos evolving research approach Justice Research and Policy 14(1) 97-116

252 Pew Charitable Trusts (2014) Evidence-based policymaking A guide for effective government Washington DC Pew Center on the States and MacArthur Foundation Retrieved from httpwwwpewtrustsorg~mediaassets201411evidencebasedpolicymakingaguideforeffectivegovernmentpdfla=en

253 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2016) The state health departmentrsquos role in the policy process A tool for state health department injury and violence prevention programs Atlanta GA Centers for Disease Control and Prevention National Center for Injury Prevention and Control Retrieved from httpswwwcdcgovinjurypdfsshd_policy_tool-apdf

254 Kania J amp Kramer M (2011) Collective impact Stanford Social Innovation Review Winter 2011 36-41

255 Kim B E Gilman A B amp Hawkins J D (2015) School-and community-based preventive interventions during adolescence Preventing delinquency through science-guided collective action In J Morizot L Kazemian (Eds) The development of criminal and antisocial behavior (pp 447-460) Switzerland Springer International Publishing

256 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2016) National Violent Death Reporting System Atlanta GA Centers for Disease Control and Prevention National Center for Injury Prevention and Control Retrieved from httpwwwcdcgovviolencepreventionnvdrsindexhtml

257 Brener N D Kann L Shanklin S Kinchen S Eaton D K Hawkins J amp Flint K H (2013) Methodology of the Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance Systemmdash2013 Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 62(RR-1) 1-23

258 Bureau of Justice Statistics (2016) Bureau of Justice Statistics Washington DC US Department of Justice Office of Justice Programs Retrieved 2016 from httpwwwbjsgov

259 Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (2016) Statistical briefing book Washington DC US Department of Justice Office of Justice Programs Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Retrieved from httpwwwojjdpgovojstatbbabouthtml

260 Kingston B Macallao M Smokowski P Sullivan T amp Sutherland K (2016) Constructing ldquopackagesrdquo of evidence-based programs to prevent youth violence processes and illustrative examples from CDCrsquos Youth Violence Prevention Centers Journal of Primary Prevention 37(2) 141-163


Appendix Summary of Strategies and Approaches to Prevent Youth Violence

Strategy ApproachProgramPractice or Policy

Best Available Evidence

Lead Sectors1Youth Violence

Perpetration

Youth Violence

Victimization

RiskProtective Factors for

Youth Violence

Promote Family Environments that Support Healthy Development

Early childhood home visitation Public health

Health care

Social servicesNurse Family Partnershipreg

Parenting skill and family relationship programs

Public health

Education

The Incredible Yearsreg

Parent Management TrainingmdashOregon Modeltrade

Strengthening Families 10ndash14

Coping Power

Familias Unidastrade

Provide Quality Education Early in Life

Preschool enrichment with family engagement Public health

Social services

Education

Child Parent Centers

Early Head Start

Strengthen Youthrsquos Skills

Universal school-based programs

Public health

Education

Good Behavior Game

Promoting Alternative THinking Strategiesreg

Life Skillsreg Training

Steps to Respect

Connect Youth to Caring Adults and Activities

Mentoring programs Community organizations

EducationBig Brothers Big Sisters of America

After-school programs Community organizations

Education

Los Angelesrsquo Better Educated Students for Tomorrow

After School Matters





Perpetration

Youth Violence

Victimization


Youth Violence

Create Protective Community Environments

Modify the physical and social environmentBusiness

Government(local state)

Business Improvement Districts

Crime Prevention through Environmental Design

Reduce exposure to community-level risks Business

Housing


Tax credits

Alcohol policies (outlet density pricing)

Street outreach and community norm change Public health

Community organzations

Cure Violence

Safe Streets

Intervene to Lessen Harms and Prevent Future Risk

Treatment to lessen the harms of violence exposures Health care

Social services

Community organizations

Trauma-Focused Cognitive Behavioral Therapyreg NA2 NA2

Cognitive Behavioral Intervention for Trauma in Schools NA2 NA2

Treatment to prevent problem behavior and future involvement in violenceHealth care

Social services

Justice

Functional Family Therapy

Multidimensional Treatment Foster Care

Multisystemic Therapyreg

Hospital-community partnerships Health care


SafERteens

Caught in the Crossfire

1This column refers to the lead sectors well positioned to bring leadership and resources to implementation efforts For each strategy there are many other sectors such as non-governmental organizations that are instrumental to prevention planning and implementing the specific programmatic activities

2The program is designed to lessen the harms of violence exposures (eg post-traumatic stress disorder depression behavioral problems)

For more information

To learn more about preventing youth violence call 1-800-CDC-INFO or visit CDCrsquos violence prevention pages at wwwcdcgovviolenceprevention

AK2016

TM

National Center for Injury Prevention and ControlDivision of Violence Prevention

Structure Bookmarks

Overview

What is a Technical Package

Preventing Youth Violence is a Priority

Assessing the Evidence

Contextual and Cross-Cutting Themes



Strengthen Youths Skills



Intervene to Lessen Harms

Benefits Relative to Costs

Sector Involvement

Monitoring and Evaluation

Conclusion

References

Appendix Summary of Strategies and Approaches

A Comprehensive Technical Package for the Prevention of Youth Violence

and Associated Risk Behaviors

Prepared by

Corinne David-Ferdon PhDAlana M Vivolo-Kantor PhD MPH

Linda L Dahlberg PhDKhiya J Marshall DrPH MPH

Neil Rainford MHSEJeffery E Hall PhD

2016

Division of Violence PreventionNational Center for Injury Prevention and Control

Centers for Disease Control and PreventionAtlanta Georgia








Contents

Acknowledgements 5

Partner Review 5

Overview 7










Conclusion 42

References 43

















































Strategy Approach




















success















































risky behaviors


















violence































































































































































































































































































































































Perpetration

Youth Violence

Victimization


Youth Violence



Health care



Public health

Education




Coping Power




Social services

Education


Early Head Start



Public health

Education

Good Behavior Game



Steps to Respect





Education







Perpetration

Youth Violence

Victimization


Youth Violence







Housing


Tax credits




Cure Violence

Safe Streets



Social services





Social services

Justice






SafERteens






AK2016

TM


Structure Bookmarks

Overview












Sector Involvement


Conclusion

References









Contents

Acknowledgements 5

Partner Review 5

Overview 7










Conclusion 42

References 43

















































Strategy Approach




















success















































risky behaviors


















violence































































































































































































































































































































































Perpetration

Youth Violence

Victimization


Youth Violence



Health care



Public health

Education




Coping Power




Social services

Education


Early Head Start



Public health

Education

Good Behavior Game



Steps to Respect





Education







Perpetration

Youth Violence

Victimization


Youth Violence







Housing


Tax credits




Cure Violence

Safe Streets



Social services





Social services

Justice






SafERteens






AK2016

TM


Structure Bookmarks

Overview












Sector Involvement


Conclusion

References

















































Strategy Approach




















success















































risky behaviors


















violence































































































































































































































































































































































Perpetration

Youth Violence

Victimization


Youth Violence



Health care



Public health

Education




Coping Power




Social services

Education


Early Head Start



Public health

Education

Good Behavior Game



Steps to Respect





Education







Perpetration

Youth Violence

Victimization


Youth Violence







Housing


Tax credits




Cure Violence

Safe Streets



Social services





Social services

Justice






SafERteens






AK2016

TM


Structure Bookmarks

Overview












Sector Involvement


Conclusion

References









success















































risky behaviors


















violence































































































































































































































































































































































Perpetration

Youth Violence

Victimization


Youth Violence



Health care



Public health

Education




Coping Power




Social services

Education


Early Head Start



Public health

Education

Good Behavior Game



Steps to Respect





Education







Perpetration

Youth Violence

Victimization


Youth Violence







Housing


Tax credits




Cure Violence

Safe Streets



Social services





Social services

Justice






SafERteens






AK2016

TM


Structure Bookmarks

Overview












Sector Involvement


Conclusion

References
















































risky behaviors


















violence































































































































































































































































































































































Perpetration

Youth Violence

Victimization


Youth Violence



Health care



Public health

Education




Coping Power




Social services

Education


Early Head Start



Public health

Education

Good Behavior Game



Steps to Respect





Education







Perpetration

Youth Violence

Victimization


Youth Violence







Housing


Tax credits




Cure Violence

Safe Streets



Social services





Social services

Justice






SafERteens






AK2016

TM


Structure Bookmarks

Overview












Sector Involvement


Conclusion

References



















violence































































































































































































































































































































































Perpetration

Youth Violence

Victimization


Youth Violence



Health care



Public health

Education




Coping Power




Social services

Education


Early Head Start



Public health

Education

Good Behavior Game



Steps to Respect





Education







Perpetration

Youth Violence

Victimization


Youth Violence







Housing


Tax credits




Cure Violence

Safe Streets



Social services





Social services

Justice






SafERteens






AK2016

TM


Structure Bookmarks

Overview












Sector Involvement


Conclusion

References
































































































































































































































































































































































Perpetration

Youth Violence

Victimization


Youth Violence



Health care



Public health

Education




Coping Power




Social services

Education


Early Head Start



Public health

Education

Good Behavior Game



Steps to Respect





Education







Perpetration

Youth Violence

Victimization


Youth Violence







Housing


Tax credits




Cure Violence

Safe Streets



Social services





Social services

Justice






SafERteens






AK2016

TM


Structure Bookmarks

Overview












Sector Involvement


Conclusion

References






Perpetration

Youth Violence

Victimization


Youth Violence







Housing


Tax credits




Cure Violence

Safe Streets



Social services





Social services

Justice






SafERteens






AK2016

TM


Structure Bookmarks

Overview












Sector Involvement


Conclusion

References




AK2016

TM


Structure Bookmarks

Overview












Sector Involvement


Conclusion

References


Cdc violencia juvenil brochura

Education

Transcript of Cdc violencia juvenil brochura