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<CSD.HANDBOOK>SUBJS. INDEX. I6 4-Feb-81 20:12

«A>blation studies, of HARPY, 335Abstraction space, in ABSTRIPS, 136ABSTRIPS, 22, 28, 134, 1355-139, 169Acoustics, 343Acquisition of knowledge. <+See> Knowledge acquisition.ACT, 195Active structural network, 185. <+Soe also> Semantic network.Ad hoc knowledge representation, 227Ad hoc parsers, 287Adaptive production system, 195Add list

in ABSTRIPS, 135in STRIPS, 1283-134

Admissibil ityof A*, 65of ordered search, 80, 83of shortfall density strategy, 341, 356

Admissibility condition, 65, 67, 73Agenda, 33t , 356, 360. <+See also Control strategy.Agreement, in natural language, 263AI programming languages, 10, 172, 175. <+See also> Knowledge representation la**nguages .

CONNIVER, 175, 176INTERLISP, 320IPL-V, 2813-282LISP, 15, 173, 237, 283, 295, 303list processing, 227, 2813-287MICRO-PLANNER, 2953-297PLANNER, 151, 155, 171, 1753-178, 2955-297POPLER, 176

QA3,

129, 168, 169

QA4,

176

QLISP,

176SLIP, 286

ALGOL, 237A* algorithm, 643-73, 80Allophone, in speech understanding, 333, 337, 349Alpha-beta pruning of game trees, 883-93, 94, 101AM, 157, 1953-197Ambiguity

in natural language,

208$-211

in speech, 3255-327Analogical knowledge representation. <+See> Direct (analogical) knowledge repre**sentation .Analogical reasoning, 146Anaphoric reference, in natural language, 293, 358AND/OR graph, 26, 38$-40, 43, 74, 113, 119, 124. <+See also Network representa**tion; Problem representation.

generalized, 82search

of,

545-57, 745-83AND/OR tree, 39, 56, 94, 268. <+See also Network representation.

context tree, 197degree of, 91

-1-


- fc

S^s

game tree, 25, 435-45, 84solution tree, 40, 75, 775-79transition tree, 3165-317

Application language, in LIFER, 316Applications of AI. <+See also> Games;

Puzzles,

chemistry, 168document retrieval, 328, 351education, 186expert systems, 9geometry, 119$-122,

201$-202

information

retrieval, 22, 282, 283, 292, 316,

318

Average branching factor. <+See> Branching factorAxiomatic system, 165

machine translation, 2073-213, 225, 226, 2335-238, 273, 274, 279, 281, 288$-29mathematics, 195medicine, 195, 220paraphrasing, 149, 211, 226, 255, 274, 302, 304, 320question answering, 168, 169, 173, 185, 186, 211, 226, 281, 288, 295, 302, 328scientific, 221space planning, 202story understanding, 231, 300, 306symbolic integration, 21, 22, 24, 118, 1235-127travel budget manager, 353voice chess, 328, 334, 344

RPA speech understanding research, 327, 353ugmented transition network (ATN), 186, 230, 261, 2635-267. <+See also Gramma*r; Parsing,in GSP, 268, 271in LIFER, 316in LUNAR, 2925-294in MARGIE, 303, 304in speech understanding systems, 350, 355in text generation systems, 2775-279

utomatic programming, 9

«B>ABEL, 278Backed-up values, in game trees, 87Backgammon, 103Backtracking control strategy, 23, 138, 203, 258, 266, 271, 298, 339, 341, 351 *XBackward-chaining control strategy, 195, 198Backward reasoning, 235-25, 36, 51, 56, 74, 110, 111Bandwidth condition, 69Bandwidth search, 60, 695-71Bare template, in preference semantics, 288, 290BASEBALL, 227, 237, 282Beam search, 337, 341, 350, 356Beam width, 341Best-first search, 59, 60, 102, 360Bidirectional search, 24, 51$-53, 725-73, 74Blackboard, 197, 257, 271, 331, 336, 337, 343, 353. <+See also> Control strateg**y; Knowledge source.

levels of abstraction, 3433-346Blind search, 21, 293-30, 465-57

-2-


i

3

bidirectional , 72and heuristic search, 58and ordered search, 61$-62in Logic Theorist, 111

Blocks world, 276Bottom-up processing. <+See also> Control strategy; Data-driven processing**ward reasoning.

For

definition of, 235-24in production systems, 198in natural -l anguage parsing, 259, 270in speech understanding, 326, 334, 338, 358

Branch-and-bound , 64Branching factor

average, in speech system grammars, 3285-329of a search tree, 91, 98

Breadth-first

search,

475-48, 565-57,

61, 68, 73,

111

«C>APS, 106, 196Case ambiguity, 291Case

frame, 182, 186, 231,

253Case grammar, 229, 249, 2525-255, 277Causal chain, 301Chart, 260, 2685-271, 354Checkers, 26, 43, 44, 95, 97Chemistry, applications of AI in, 168Chess, 6, 22, 23, 26,

43,

945-108, 205,

334,

351Co-routining, 271. <+See also> Control strategy; Parallel processingCombinatorial explosion, 27, 28, 58, 98, 99, 154, 155, 168, 260, 339, yP356Competence vs. performance, 245Compiled knowledge, 3365-337, 349Completeness, of a knowledge representation, 178Computational linguistics, 226, 229, 233, 304Computer-assisted instruction, 186Conceptual analyzer, in MARGIE, 303Conceptual dependency theory (CD)

definition of, in MARGIE, 300$-303in SAM and PAM, 306and semantic primitives, 211$-215, 231and text generation, 2785-279

Conceptualization, 213Concordance, 226Conflict resolution, in production systems, 192, 197Conjunctive subgoals, 111, 119Connected-speech understanding. <+See> Speech understanding.CONNIVER, 1755-176Consistency assumption, in search algorithms, 66, 69, 73Consistency, of a knowledge representation, 178Constraining knowledge, 344Constraint-structured planning, 203Construction, in geometry, 121Context

in production systems, 190, 197in speech understanding, 333

■"


4

tree, in MYCIN, 197Context-free grammar. <+See also Phrase-structure grammar

definition of, 2425-243in parsing, 260, 263in text-generation, 2735-274in transformational grammar, 247

Context-sensitive grammar, 2413-242. <+See also> Phrase-structure grammar.Control strategy. <+See also Problem solving; Reasoning; Search algorithms

agenda, 338, 356, 360backtracking, 23, 138, 203, 258, 266, 271, 298, 339, 341, 351backward chaining, 195, 198

blackboard, 197, 257, 271, 331, 336, 337, 343,

353- bottom-up, 235-24, 198, 220, 259, 270

co-routining, 271conflict resolution, 192, 197

326, 334, 338, 358

'"—data- or event-driven, 24, 198, 220definition of, 22demons, 303— direction

of,

235-24, 198, 220 1* 'event queue, 356

' expectation- or goal-driven, 183, 198,focus of attention, 190, 197, 338, 340,forward chaining, 198hybrid, 340, 356hypothesis posting, 336, 338, 354island driving, 259, 337, 339, 346, 356matching, 159, 187parallel processing, 258, 265, 298in parsing, 230, 2585-259in PLANNER, 179procedural attachment, 156, 158, 179, 2

2165-218, 232, 326, 334, 336, 344

347, 356,

360

361

218$-221and procedural knowledge representation, 174in production systems, 194, 1975-198in speech systems, 3365-342, 347, 3505-351, 3555-357, 3595-360scheduler, 347, 356

~-

top-down, 183, 198, 2165-218, 232, 259, 326, 334, 336, 338, 344, 355, 358, 359CONVERSE, 228Cost, in search algorithms, 755-77Critical node, in a game tree, 91Criticality value, in ABSTRIPS, 136CRYSALIS, 336Cybernetics, 4, 233

«D>ata-dri ven processing, 235-24, 198"""Control strategy; Forward reasoning.

220. <+See also> Bottom-up processing;

Database, 22, 328. <+See also> Information retrieval.DEACON, 228Dead position, in a game, 87, 99Declarative knowledge representation, 230

vs. procedural knowledge representation, 151, 172, 219Deduction, 146, 205. <+See also Inference; Reasoning.Deep structure, in language, 247, 266Default reasoning, 1765-177

<CSD. HANDBOOK>SUBJS . INDEX . I6 4-Feb-81 20:12

Direct (analogical) knowledge representation, 158, 177,

200$-206

and parallel processing, 204vs. propositional knowledge representation, 200

Directedness of reasoning, 151, 1745-177, 185, 188, 193, 219Direction of reasoning, 235-24, 198, 220Discourse, 339, 358

dialogue, 220

extended,

279pragmatics, 249, 327, 332, 334, 359

Discovery, by AM, 196Discrimination

network, 158, 278,

304Distributed processing, 336. <+See also Parallel processing.

Document retrieval

task,

328, 351Domain-specific knowledge, 151, 176, 220. <+See also Heuristic.

DRAGON,

3285-329, 337Dynamic ordering, 102Dynamic programming, 351Dynamic weighting, 69

«E>arly natural language programs, 2275-229, 237, 257, 260,

281$

Education, applications of AI in, 186287

8-puzzle, 32, 51, 62, 67, 68Elimination rule, in logic, 163, 164, 169ELIZA, 227, 257, 260, 2855-287Ellipsis, in natural language, 320, 358Embedding, in natural language, 263

Document retrieval

task,

328, 351Di vide-and-conquer . <+See> Problem reduction.

efault values, 183, 2165-220egree of a tree, 91elete listin

ABSTRIPS,

135in

STRIPS,

128emon, 303. <+See also> Control strategy.IENDRAL, 60, 157 198denotative knowledge representation, 200lependency grammar, 274lepth bound, 49, 57, 99, 115lepth-first search, 495-51, 57, 60, 61, 101, 113, 138, 203'epth of a node, 49erivation tree, 229, 242, 246, 256, 266, 273, 281, 293, 296, 30(iagram, reasoning

from,

201'ialogue. <+See> Discourse.ictionary, for machine translation, 234ifferencein GPS, 113in means-ends anaylsis, 24in STRIPS, 129

r«i'i , uo, isu

pistemology, 151, 153, 170valuation function, 60, 613-62, 64, 673-73, 77, 78, 80, 83, 9vent-driven processing. <+See> Data-driven processing.vent queue, 356xpansion of a node, 46, 55

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Expectation-driven processing, 183, 198, 2165-218, 232, 326, 334, 336, 344. <+Scc also> Backward reasoning; Control strategy; Top-down processing.Expert system, 9

knowledge-based system, 227, 229knowledge engineering, 9, 198

Expertise, interactive transfer of, 199Explanation, by expert systems, 9, 195, 198$-199Explicit vs. implicit knowledge representation, 150, 172Extended discourse, 279Extended grammar, 2455-255Extended grammar parsers, 260Extended inference, 176

15-puzzle, 68, 73Finite-state grammar, 337. <+See alsoFinite-state transition diagram (FSTD),First-order logic, 165

Regular grammar.2635-264

Fixed ordering of nodes, in search, 90, 101Focus of attention, control strategy, 190,

FOL, 169, 171,

205

197, 338, 340, 347, 356,

360

Formal grammar, 2395-244Formal language, 2395-244, 263Formal reasoning, 146Formula, in preference semantics, 288$-289Forward-chaining control strategy, 198Forward pruning, of game trees, 104Forward reasoning, 235-25, 51, 56, 74, 198Frame knowledge representation, 149, 156,**lso Script knowledge representation.

158$-159, 2165-222, 3345-335. <+See a

and case frames, 183, 254matching in, 159and preference semantics, 208, 229, 231and semantic networks, 183, 186, 189

Frame problem, 177, 201Propositional knowledge representation

Full-width search, 103Functions, in logic, 165

«G>ame tree, 25, 435-45, 84random, 92totally dependent, 92uniform, 91$-93

Game-tree search, 84$-108. <+See also>alpha-beta, 88$-93, 94, 101backed-up values, 87dead position, 87, 99forward, 104horizon

effect,

99killer heuristic, 102live position, 87method of analogies, 104minimax, 84$-87, 88, 90, 91, 94, 98

Search algorithms; AND/OR tree.

Fregean knowledge representation. <+See>FRL-0, 221

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negmax formalism, 86$-87, 89plausible-move generation, 104quiescence, 995-100, 103refutation move, 102secondary search, 100static evaluation function, 87tapered forward, 104

965-97, 100

Games, 153. <+See also>

Puzzles,

backgammon, 103checkers, 26, 43, 44, 95, 97chess, 6, 22, 23, 26, 43, 945-108go, 103tic-tac-toe, 43, 94voice chess, 328, 334, 344

205, 334,

351

General Problem Solver (GPS), 113$**nds analysis.

118, 129, 135, 169,

196. <+See also> Means

General Space Planner, 2025-203General Syntactic Processor (GSP),Generality .s. power, 335

2685-272

Generalized AND/OR graph, 82Generate-and-test, 30Generative grammar, 229, 245, 247Generative semantics, 248Geometry Theorem Prover, 119$-122, 201$-202Go, 103Goal, 22, 36, 105, 114, 306, 308

■■"■» Goal -directed reasoning. <+See>3103-311

Top-down reasoning; Expectation-driven processi**ng; Control strategy.Goal states, 33GOLUX, 171, 175GPS. <+See> General Problem Solver.Graceful degradation, 336Grain size of a knowledge representation, 147Grammar. <+See also Natural language understanding; Parsing.

ATN, 186,

230,

261,

2635-267, 268, 271, 2775-279, 2925-294, 303, 304, 316average branching factor of, 328case, 229, 249, 2525-255, 277context-free, 2425-243, 245, 247context-sensitive, 2415-242, 245definition of, 225, 229

329

260, 263, 273,

274

dependency, 274extended, 2605-261finite-state, 337formal , 2395-244generative, 229, 245, 247habitability of, 328mood system of,' 249obligatory and optional transformations in, 247and parsing, 256, 2605-262performance, 261, 335, 355, 359phrase-structure, 2405-246, 260, 262regular, 243, 245, 263

semantic, 229, 261, 318, 320, 335, 355,

359

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Human memory. <+See> Memory, models of.Human problem solving, 6s-7, 14, 285HWIM, 267, 292, 328, 337, 339, 3535-357Hybrid control strategy, in HWIM, 340, 356Hypothesis posting, 336, 338, 354. <+See also Control strategy.Hypothesis scoring, 340, 346, 347, 351, 355, 356

shortfall density strategy, in HWIM, 341, 356uniform scoring policy, 340

Hypothesize-and-test . <+See> Generate-and-testHypothetical worlds, 360

R

Information-processing psychology. <+See> Psychology.Informedness of an algorithm, 65

in speech systems, 326, 332, 349story, 306systemic, 229, 2495-251, 297transformational, 229, 233, 237, 2455-248, 249, 251, 252transition tree, in LIFER, 3165-317transitivity system of, 249

irammarless pars, rs, 261iraph Traverser, 67iround space, in ABSTRIPS, 135ISP. <+See> General Syntactic Processor.iUS, 220, 231

:<H>abitabil i ty of a language, 328IAM, 185lARPY, 328, 329, 335, 337, 339, 344, 346, 3495-352, 356lAWKEYE, 318lEARSAY, 1965-197, 336, 338, 3433-348

HEARSAYS-I,

328, 334, 335, 343

HEARSAYS-11,

328, 345leuristic, 21, 64, 66, 74, 78, 94, 119, 151, 168, 174, 177, 188, 201, 220, 228*258, 277, 282, 284, 293, 296, 298, 299, 335. <+See also Heuristic search.definitions of, 283-30, 58, 109killer, in game playing, 102

euristic Path Algorithm, 67leuristic search, 28, 293-30, 46, 58$-83, 945-108, 117, 350, 356ierarchical planning, 135ierarchical search, 135ierarchy. <+See>

Inheritance,

omomorphic knowledge representation, 200orizon effect, in game-tree search, 99iuman engineering, 319

<<I>deational function of language, 249Incremental simulation, in HWIM, 341Indeterminacy of knowledge representations, 148Inexact reasoning, 195Inference, 146, 188, 213, 228, 231, 2363-237, 255, 276, 3033-304. <+See also**easoning .

extended, 176rules of, 146, 154, 155, 160, 1625-165

Information retrieval, 22, 145, 2825-283, 292, 316, 318


9

Inheritancehierarchy, 156, 181, 218of properties, 156, 181$-184, 216, 218

Initial states, 33Instance, in semantic networks, 182Integration. <+See> Symbolic integrationIntelligence, 33-11Intelligent technology, 3Interactive transfer of expertise, 199Interdependent subproblems, 56, 81$-83Interlingua, 2343-235, 237, 288, 300, 303, 304INTERLISP, 320Intermediate OR

node, 39, 56,

57Interpersonal function, of language, 249Interpreter, of a production system, 190$-192Interpretive semantics, 248Intonation, in speech signal, 333Introduction rule, in logic, 163, 164, 169IPL-V, 281$-282Island-driving control strategy, 259, 337, 339, 346, 356, 361Isolated-word recognition of speech, 325, 333, 349Iterative deepening search algorithm, 100$-101

«J>uncture rules, in speech understanding, 330, 350, 354

«K>iller heuristic, 102Kinship relations, 281KLONE, 221Knowledge, 144. <+See also> Heuristic,

compiled, 336, 337, 349compiler, 349constraining, 344domain-specific, 151, 176, 220explicit vs. implicit, 150, 172world, 226, 230

Knowledge acquisition, 145, 194, 195, 198. <+See al so> LearningKnowledge-based system, 227, 229. <+See also> Expert system.Knowledge engineering, 9, 198. <+See also> Expert system.Knowledge representation, 1433-222, 226, 2293-232. <+See also>**entation languages.

Knowledge repres

ad hoc, 227completeness

of,

178consistency

of,

178

declarative,

230declarative vs. procedural, 151, 172, 219, 230denotative, 200direct (analogical), 158, 177,

200$-206

homomorphic, 200indeterminacy

of,

148issues in, 1455-152modularity of, 149, 157, 170, 178, 193, 198, 336, 343organization of, 336procedural, 1725-179, 295-297

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procedural-decl arative controversy, 151, 230propositional (Fregean), 200

Limited-logic natural language systems, 228Linguistics, computational. <+See> Computational linguistics

LISP, 15, 173, 237, 283, 295,

303List processing, 227, 281$-287Live position in a game, 87Logic, 4, 8, 146, 148, 151, 1545-155, 160$-171, 172, 174

completeness and consistency

of,

178first-order, 165functions in, 165natural deduction in, 163, 164, 169, 175predicate calculus, 128, 163, 200, 292, 297, 299predicates in, 163, 182propositional calculus, 109, 116, 118, 1603-163quantification in, 151, 360resolution method in, 168, 175

Logic Theorist (LT), 24, 109$-112, 113, 116, 119LUNAR, 230, 267, 2925-294, 353

«M>achine translationcurrent status of, 2375-238early AI work in, 226, 2335-237and semantic primitives, 2075-213and text generation, 2735-274Wilks's system, 2883-291

Manageability, of production systems

193,

198

Machinese. <+See> Interlingua.Macro-operators, 28MACROP, 133

propositional vs. direct, 200scope of, 147semantic interpretation

function,

200knowledge representation languages. <+See also> AI programming languages.

FRL-0, 221KLONE, 221KRL, 158, 221, 231UNITS, 221

;nowledge source, 257, 298, 326, 336, 3435-348, 353. <+See also

Blackboard,

ablation studies of, 335response frame of, 345, 347stimulus frame

of,

345RL, 158, 221, 231

:<L>ADDER, 318anguage definition system, 316, 359anguage, i jrmal, 2393-244, 263anguage understanding. <+See> Natural language understanding.earning, 9, 97, 128, 145, 157, 193, 195. <+See also> Knowledge acquisition.egal-move generator, 153, 334, 344ength-first search, 138exicon, 247, 333, 346, 354IFER, 231, 232, 261, 3163-321, 360

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MARGIE, 149, 211, 231, 278, 3003-305, 306, 334Matching. <+See also Control strategy, Pattern matching

of frames, 159of semantic network fragments, 187

Mathematics, applications of AI in, 195Max cost. <+See> Cost, in search algorithms.Means-ends anal: -.is, 24, 59, 113, 117, 126, 129, 135, 169. <+See also> General""Problem Solver.Mechanical translation. <+See> Machine translation.Medicine, applications of AI in, 195, 220MEMOD, 215Memory, models of. <+See also Psychology; Semantic network knowledge represent**ation.

ACT, 195associative, 230EPAM, 158, 196HAM, 185imagery, 201MEMOD, 215Quillian's spreading activationsemantic

network,

180system, 185, 187

Meta-knowledge, 144, 147Method of analogies, in game-treeMICRO-PLANNER, 2955-297

search,

104

Middle-out search strategy. <+See> Island driving control strategyMIND, 268, 272Minimax search in game trees, 84$-87, 88, 90, 91, 94, 98Model, semantic, in FOL, 205Modularity of a knowledge representation, 149, 157, 170, 178, 193, 198

336,

343Modus ponens, 162Mood system, of a grammar, 249Morphemics

in speech understanding, 3325-333in transformational grammar, 246

Multiple sources of knowledge. <+See> Knowledge source.Mutilated chessboard problem, 27

MYCIN, 151, 157,

1955-199

«N>amed plan, in PAM, 313Natural deduction, in logic, 1635-164, 169, 175Natural language features, problematic

agreement, 263ambiguity, 208$-211anaphoric reference, 293, 358case ambiguity, 291ellipsis, 320, 358embedding, 263habitabil ity, 328speech acts, 280

Natural language understanding, 3, 8, 2255-321, 3585-359. <+See also Speech un**derstanding.

competence vs. performance in, 245early research, 2275-229, 237, 257, 260, 281$-287


12

and semantic primitives, 149, 2075-214Natural language understanding, applications

information retrieval, 22, 145, 282, 283, 292, 316, 318machine translation, 2075-213, 225, 226, 2333-238, 273, 274, 279, 281, 2883-291paraphrasing, 149, 211, 226, 255, 274, 302, 304, 320question answering, 168, 169, 173, 185, 186, 211, 226, 281, 288, 295, 302, 328story understanding, 221, 231, 300, 306

Negmax formalism for game-tree search, 86$-87, 89Network representation. <+See also> Semantic network knowledge representation.

ATN, 186, 230, 233, 261, 2635-267, 268, 271, 2775-279, 2925-294, 303, 304, 316discrimination, 158, 278, 304Finite-state transition diagram, 2633-264partitioning, 186pronunciation graphs, 330RTN, 2643-266segmented lattice, 330, 337, 353, 356in speech systems, 330, 337spelling graph, 330, 337, 346transition tree, 3163-317

Nodecritical , 91depth of, 49expansion of, 46, 55intermediate, 39, 56, 57solvable, 40successor, 26, 33, 46terminal , 38, 43tip, 80, 87unsolvable, 40, 55

Noise, in speech signal, 343Nondeterminism. <+See> Parsing.Nonterminal symbols of a grammar, 239NP-complete problems, 68, 69NUDGE, 221

<<o>bl igatory transformation, in a grammar, 247Observation of a semantic model, 205Operator schemata, 33Operators, in problem solving, 22, 32, 36, 74, 110, 113, 119, 123, 128, 135Optimal solution, in search, 28, 62, 74Optimality, of search algorithm, 653-67, 80, 83Optional transformation, in a grammar, 247Ordered depth-first search, 60, 102Ordered

search,

593-62, 64, 72, 773-81, 82, 124Organization of knowledge, 336

«P>AM,

300, 306, 3133-314Parallel processing, 258, 265, 298

Co-routining, 271and direct knowledge representation, 204distributed, 336

Paraphrasing, 149, 211, 226, 255, 274, 302, 304, 320Paraplate, in preference semantics, 279, 291

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PARRY, 257PARSIFAL, 230Parsing, 225, 229, 2395-240, 2565-272. <+See also

Grammar;

Natural**derstanding . language un

ad hoc, 287with an ATN, 2635-267, 293, 349, 355with charts, 250, 2683-271, 354control strategies, 230, 2583-259with extended grammars, 260in LIFER, 3163-318by MARGIE'S conceptual analyzer, 3023-303nondeterminism, 265grammarless parsers, 260, 261by SHRDLU's PROGRAMMAR, 2973-298in speech understanding, 327, 359template matching, 260with a transformational grammar, 260

Partial development, in search, 59, 114Partial expansion. <+See> Partial developmentPartial functions, operators viewed as, 33Partitioned semantic

network,

186, 360Pattern matching, 123, 256, 260, 2835-287. <+See also> Matching.Perceptual primitives, in WHISPER, 204Performance evaluation, of speech systems, 329Performance grammar, 261, 335, 349, 355, 359. <+See also> SemanticPHLIQAI, 232

grammar

Phonemicsin speech understanding, 327, 3325-333in transformational grammar, 246

Phonetics, 327,

3323-333, 343Phonological component of a transformational grammar, 248Phrase marker, in a transformational grammar, 246, 273Phrase-structure grammar, 2405-246

compared with trasformation grammar, 245definition of, 243in parsing, 260, 262

Planin problem solving, 107, 128, 131, 137in story understanding, 306, 3093-310

PLANNER,

151, 155, 171, 1753-178, 2955-297Planning, 22, 28, 169. <+See also> Problem solving; Reasoning

constraint-structured, 203hierarchical, in ABSTRIPS, 135generalized, in STRIPS,

131$-134

Plausible-move generation, in gamePlausible reasoning, 177

tree

search,

104

Ply, in game trees, 99POPLER, 176Potential solution, in heuristic search, 775-79, 80, 82Pragmatics, in discourse, 249, 327, 332, 334, 359Preconditions, of an operator

in ABSTRIPS, 136in

STRIPS, 128, 131,

135

<CSD.HANDBOOK>SUBJS. INDEX. I6 4-Feb- 81 20:12

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Predicate calculus, 128, 163, 200, 292, 297, 299. <+See also> Logic.Predicate, in logic, 163, 182Preference semantics, 208, 279, 288$-291Primitive problem, 36, 38, 74, 121Primitives

perceptual, in WHISPER, 204semantic, 148? 149, 183, 198, 2075-215, 231, 237, 278, 288$-291, 300$-

Problem reduction, 7, 114, 119, 201303, 306

Problem-reduction representation, 25, 3.65-42, 54, 74, 113Problem representation, 8, 225-28, 325-45

game tree, 25, 435-45, 84AND/OR graph, 26, 38$-40, 43, 74, 113, 119, 124problem-reduction, 25, 365-42, 54, 74, 113state space, 26, 33, 195theorem-proving, 25

Problem solving, 7, 21, 58, 74, 109, 113, 119, 123, 128, 135, 153, 284,**See also Planning; Problem representation; Reasoning; Theorem proving

generate-and-test , 30

human,

285interdependent subproblems, 56,

81$-83

means-ends analysis, 24, 59, 113, 117, 126, 129, 135, 169operators, 22, 32, 36, 74, 110, 113, 119, 123, 128, 135optimal solution, 28, 62, 74primitive problem, 36, 38, 74, 121problem reduction, 7, 114, 119, 201for robots, 22, 128$-139solution, 33state-space search, 30, 35, 465-53, 55, 58$-73, 77, 80, 111, 153, 195

Problem space. <+See> State space.Procedural attachment, 156, 158, 179, 218$-221Procedural -decl arative controversy, 151, 230Procedural knowledge, 193, 198, 219

1723-179 O/^Procedural knowledge representation, 146, 149, 150, 1553-156, 158, 171

**,

2183-221,

230, 289,

2955-297Procedural

semantics,

2293-230Process control . <+See> Control strategyProduction

rule, 157, 190, 239,

303Production system, 157, 1903-199

adaptive, 195conflict resolution in, 192, 197context, 190, 197interpreter, 1903-192manageability of, 193, 198

PROGRAMMAR, 297, 319Programming languages for AI. <+See> AI programming languages.Pronunciation graph, 330Property inheritance. <+See> Inheritance.Propositional calculus, 109, 116, 118, 1603-163. <+See also Logic.Propositional (Fregean) knowledge representation, 200Prosodies, in speech understanding, 327, 3323-334, 359

PROSPECTOR, 157, 181, 196,

198PROTOSYNTHEX, 228Pruning, 59, 60, 121, 129, 201. <+See also> Game-tree search

296. <+

<CSD.HANDBOOK>SUBJS. INDEX. I6 4- Feb-81 20:12

15

Pseudo-language, 233Psychology, 157, 180, 193, 201

human problem solving, 6s-7, 14, 285memory, 180, 187, 201, 230

Puzzles. <+See also Games,blocks world, 276Bs-puzzle, 32, 51, 62, 67, 6815$-puzzle, 68, 73mutilated chessboard, 27Tower of

Hanoi,

363-38,

42, 160,

165traveling-salesman problem, 21, 34, 48, 62, 69, 70$-71

«Q>A3, 129, 168$-169QA4, 176QLISP, 176Quantification, 151, 164, 292, 360Query language, 292

Question

answering, 168, 169, 173, 185, 186, 211, 226, 281, 288, 295

Quiescence

in game-tree pruning, 993-100, 103Random game tree, 92Random text generation, 233, 273Reasoning, 8, 146

analogical , 146backward, 233-25, 36, 51, 56, 74, 110, 111bottom-up, 24deduction, 146, 205default, 1763-177direction of, 233-24, 198, 220directedness of, 151, 1745-177, 185, 188, 193, 219event-driven, 198, 220expectation-driven, 183, 197, 2165-218, 232, 326, 334, 336, 344extended

inference,

176formal , 146forward, 235-25, 51, 56, 74, 198from a diagram, 201goal -directed , 24inexact, 195inference, 146, 188, 204, 211, 213, 228, 231, 236, 237, 254, 276

**3, 304

282, 291,

30

plausible, 177spreading activation, 185, 187, 189top down, 24top-down vs. bottom up. <+See> Control strategy, direction of.<+See also> Control strategy, Planning, Problem solving

Recursive pattern matcher, 256Recursive transition networks (RTN), 2645-266Refutation move, in game playing, 102Regular grammar, 243, 245, 263Representation of Knowledge. <+See> Knowledge representationResolution method, in logic, 168, 175Response frame, of a knowledge source, 345, 347Rewrite

rules, 239, 261,

316<+See also> Grammars, Productions

302, 328 J^*'

<CSD. HANDBOOK>SUBJS . INDEX . I6 4-Feb-81 20:12

ROBOT, 232Robot problem solving, 22, 128$-139Robotics, 10Rule

of inference, 146, 154, 155, 160, 1625-165production, 157, 190, 239, 303

rewrite, 239, 261,

316Rule base, of a production system, 190Rule-based system. <+See> Production systemSAD3-SAM, 158, 227, 237, 260, 2813-282SAINT, 1233-127SAM, 211, 216, 220, 231, 300, 306, 3113-313, 334Scheduler, 347, 356Schema. <+See> Frame.SCHOLAR, 186Scientific applications of AI, 221Scope of a knowledge representation, 147Scoring. <+See> Hypothesis scoring

309, 311,

334cript, knowledge representation, 2163-222, 231, 300, 3CDC speech system, 337earch, 6, 7, 21, 25, 330, 337, 338, 339, 343, 344

06, a

hierarchical , 135earch algorithms

A* algorithm, 645-73, 80alpha-beta pruning, 88$-93, 94, 101bandwidth search, 60, 695-71beam, 337, 341, 350, 356best-first, 59, 60, 102, 360bidirectional, 24, 51$-53, 725-73, 74blind, 21, 293-30, 465-57, 58, 61$-62, 72, 111breadth-first, 475-48, 563-57, 61, 68, 73, 111depth-first, 493-51, 57, 60, 61, 101, 113, 138, 203fixed ordering, 90, 101full-width, 103generate-and-test , 30AND/OR graph search, 545-57, 743-83heuristic, 21, 28, 295-30, 46, 58$-83, 117, 119, 350Heuristic Path Algorithm, 67iterative deepening, 1003-101length-first, 138minimax, 843-87, 88, 90, 91, 94, 98negmax, 863-87, 89optimal solution, 28, 62, 74optimality, 65, 66, 67, 80, 83ordered, 593-62, 64, 72, 773-81, 82, 124ordered depth-first, 60, 102partial development, 59, 114potential solution, 773-79, 80, 82in speech systems, 3395-340tapered forward pruning, 104uniform-cost, 48$-49, 51, 61, 65, 73<+See also> Game-tree pruning

learch graph, 26

-16-


!

Search space, problem representation, 265-28, 58, 94, 339, 343Secondary search, in game-tree pruning, 100Segmented lattice, 330, 337, 353, 356Semantic analysis, in natural language understanding, 228, 230Semantic component, of a transformatinal grammar, 248Semantic density, in preference semantics, 290Semantic gramma:. 229, 261, 318, 320, 335, 355, 359

<+See also> Performance grammarSemantic interpretation function, in knowledge representation, 200Semantic marker, 297Semantic model, in FOL, 205Semantic network knowledge representation, 156, 172, 1803-189, 193, 197, 208, 21 0 u~Z

**Q oon oQ n oc

A I1

a

n-1-1

ono r»

1

n ice oen

-S**8, 229, 230, 254, 276, 277, 303, 330, 355, 360active structural network, 185fragment matching, 187partitioning, 186, 360spreading activation, 185, 187, 189

lemantic primitives, 148, 149, 183, 198, 2075-215, 231, 237, 254, 278, 288, 300, Q t jV-S* 306 J V

/

iemantics, 184, 186, 189, 225, 235, 287, 316, 326, 327, 332, 334, 344generative, 248interpretive, 248preference, 208procedural , 229, 230

entential connectives, in logic, 161hort-term memory buffer, in production systems. <+See>

Context,

hortfall density strategy, for hypothesis scoring in HWIM, 341, 356HRDLU, 151, 176, 196, 230, 251, 257, 260, 276, 2955-299, 319imulation structure, in FOL, 205IN, 125, 127IR, 158, 173, 185, 228, 237, 260, 2835-284LIP, 286lot, of a frame, 158, 216NIFFER, 188OLDIER, 125

;olution

graph, 40, 55olution, in problem solving, 33iolution tree, 40, 75, 775-79lolvable node, 40iOPHIE, 257, 261 f\Cort, in logic, 163, 166 ,cC^ipace planning task, 202 qC oy^Ipeech acts, 280 'fl\D+'ipeech recognition, 325, 326, 333, 349ipeech signal , 332

acoustics , 343allophone, 333, 337, 349intonation, 333noise, 343stress, 333syllable, 333, 343

ipeech understanding, 158, 186, 226, 231, 257, 259, 267, 292, 325connected speech, 326

-17-

<CSD . HANDBOOK>SUBJS . INDEX . I6 4-Feb-81 20:12

18

evaluation of system performance, 329isolated-word recognition, 325, 333, 349morphemics, 246, 3325-333network representations in, 330, 337phonemics, 246, 327, 3325-333prosodies, 327, 3325-334, 359vs. speech recognition, 326

SPEECHLIS, 328, 353Spelling correction, 320Spelling graph, 330, 337, 346Spreading activation, in semantic networks, 185, 187, 189SRI speech system, 338Start symbol, of a grammar, 240State, 22, 32State space, 26, 33, 195State-space graph, 25, 333-34, 43, 46, 61, 64, 74State-space representation, 24, 325-35, 36, 40$-42, 46, 74, 113,State-space search, 30, 35, 463-53, 55, 583-73, 77, 80, 111, 153,Static evaluation function, in game-tree pruning, 87, 963-97, 100

129195

Stereotypes, in preference semantics, 289Stimulus frame, of a knowledge source, 345Story grammars, 306Story understanding, 231, 300, 306Stress, in speech understanding, 333STRIPS, 22, 28,

42,

82, 128$-134,

135,

138$-139, 169STUDENT, 196, 227, 237, 260, 2845-285Stylistics, in text generation, 279Subgoals, conjunctive, 111, 119Subproblems, interdependent, 56, 813-83

<+See also Problem solving, SubgoalsSuccessor

node, 26, 33,

46Sum cost, 75, 763-77Surface structure, 247, 252, 273, 274, 277

<+See also SyntaxSyllable, in speech understanding, 333, 343Symbolic integration, 21, 22, 24, 118, 1233-127Syntactic analysis, in natural language understanding, 230Syntactic categories, of a grammar, 239Syntactic component, of a transformational grammar, 247Syntactic symmetry, in Geometry Theorem Prover, 120Syntax, 155, 225, 326, 327, 332, 334, 344, 346Systemic grammar, 229, 2493-251, 297Systems architecture, for speech understanding, 3323-342, 353Table of Connections, in GPS, 115Tapered forward pruning, 104Tautology, in logic, 162Taxonomy, 181 (<+See also> InheritanceTeachable Language Comprehender (TLC), 185, 228TEIRESIAS, 145, 1953-199Template

in case grammars, 253in preference semantics, 279,

288$-291

in speech recognition, 333, 337, 340, 349


s'^i3>

S^s

19

Tower of Hanoi puzzle, 363-38, 42, 160, 165Transfer of expertise, 199Transformational grammar, 229, 233, 237, 2455-248, 249, 251, 252Transformational grammar parsers, 260Transformations, obligatory and optional, 2465-247Transition operator. <+See> Legal-move generator.Transition tree grammar, in LIFER, 3163-317Transitivity system, of a grammar, 249Travel budget manager task, 353Traveling-salesman problem, 21, 34, 48, 62, 69, 703-71Triangle table, in STRIPS, 1313-132Trigger. <+See> Procedural attachmentTruth table, in logic, 162Truth values, in logic, 161Turing machine, 241, 266Understandabil ity , of knowledge representations, 150, 1563-157, 174, 193Uniform-cost

search,

483-49,

51,

61, 65, 73Uniform game tree, 913-93Uniform scoring policy, of hypotheses in HWIM, 340UNITS, 221Universal specialization, in logic, 164Unsolvable node, of an AND/OR graph, 40, 55Variable domain array, in General Space Planner, 202Variable, in logic, 164Verb sense, 278

Vision, 10, 330,

334Voice

chess, 328; 334,

344Well-formed formula, in logic, 164WHISPER, 203Word island, in HWIM, 353Word template, 349World knowledge, 226, 230World model , 22, 128, 135

emplate matching, in parsing, 260erminal node, of an AND/OR graph, 38, 43erminal symbols, in a grammar, 239ext-based NL systems, 228ext generation, 225, 254, 267, 268, 272, 2735-280, 289, 291, 304, 360

random, 233, 273extual function, of language, 249heme, in story understanding, 306, 310$-311, 313heorem proving, 22, 23, 26, 62, 74, 109, 116, 118, 119, 129, 151, 155, 168, 171*, 175, 188, 297heorem-proving representation, 25HNOT, in PLANNER, 176ic-tac-toe, 43, 94ip node, of an AND/OR graph, 80, 87op-down processing, 259, 326, 334, 338, 344, 355, 358, 359

<+See also> Backward Reasoning, Control strategy, Expectation-driven processinop-down reasoning, 24op-down vs. bottom-up reasoning, 198ORUS, 186otally dependent game tree, 92

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