Conflicts between small‐ and large‐scale mining 

in Tanzania and Senegalcauses, nature, and mitigation 

strategies 

Johanna Carstens Projekt‐Consult GmbH

Outline

• Background information

• Sources of conflicts

• Case studies– Tanzania

– Senegal

• Mitigation strategies

• Conclusion

IntroductionMining sector in most African countries comprises

ASM and LSM

Numbers of ASMhave grown since the arrival of LSMdue to increased pressure on land

International LSMinvestors attracted during neoliberalreforms starting inthe 1990s

ASM mostlyinformal and oftentraditional income earning activity for local population

Introduction

• Conflicts between ASM and LSM (often involving the administration) occur inalmost all countries with dual mining economy

• They can be found in different intensities from latent conflicts of interest to violent clashes

Intensity of conflicts usually increases with time

Sources of conflicts

Government does

not secure our 

guaranteed rights

Government

ASMLSM

Assisting mining

parties in conflict

is not our

responsability

Artisanal miners

steal our natural

resources anddon‘t

abide by the law

Legal framew

ork 

is biased; we get 

no support

Artisanal miners violateour mining titles

LSM companies treat us unequably

Grievance I

• De facto biased legal administrative framework in the mining sector 

• Rights system, especially licence allocation, not adapted to reality– Relevance of ASM is not recognized

– Does not enjoy legal protectiondue to informality

Grievance II• (perceived) unfair treatment by the LSMcompanies– Costs and Benefits of LSM  Taking all for themselves and leaving nothing to the locals

– Displacement, environmental degradation andcompensation 

– Militarisation of mining areas– Sweeping „invading“ artisanal miners off their concessions

Lack of communicationSignificant lack of communication among all mining stakeholders

No commu‐nication

Reserve Misconceptions, prejudices

Tension, conflict

Lack of communication

Understanding each other‘s position is

essential to build cordial relations and establish the trust necessary to

cooperate

Examples of different conflicts• The examples of Tanzania and Senegalshow how – The same sources of conflicts exist even though the general conditions are verydifferent

– The conflicts can be of a very different nature and intensity

Tanzania

Major ASM areas in Tanzania

Mining facts Tanzania• Tanzania is the 3rd largest producer of gold inAfrica and also produces significant quantities ofgemstones

• Several „World class deposits“ (gold) mined by foreign LSM companies

• Estimations for numbers of small‐scale miners range from 500,000 to 1.5 million

• ASM mine mostly gold and gemstones in various locations all over the country, majority not licensed

Legal framework

• Tanzania Mining Act (1998) provides a range ofincentives for international LSM investors

• Makes provision for small‐scale mining licenses but practically very difficult to get

• No licenses within licenses• Conflicting customary and statutory land rights systems

• No mining revenue backflow to region of mineralorigin

Nature of conflicts

• Conflicts are open and partly violent• Acts of sabotage are carried out• Clashes between artisanal miners and LSMcompany security personnel happen regularly  

• May involve injuries and fatalities• Mining stakeholders and general public are aware of conflicts

Senegal

Exploration permits and ASM sites in Kédougou area, Senegal

Mining facts Senegal

• Mining sector of comparably little importance to Senegalese economy (now)

• Only one gold mining concession at the moment + some building materials; allothers still exploring

• Around 30,000 artisanal miners• All ASM „illegal“, concentrated inKédougou area, mine for gold

Legal framework

• The Code Minier Sénégal (2003) also provides several incentives for international LSM investors

• Makes provision for artisanal exploitation permits but none exist up to now

• Artisanal exploitation licenses within exploration permits possible

• Part of mining revenues shall benefit local level• Once the companies start exploitation they haveto participate in the „Programme Social Minier“

Nature of conflicts

• Conflicts are mostly latent• No violent clashes so far, road block only sabotage noted 

• Artisanal miners generally hope to solve their conflicts through negociation, only atone site threats of sabotage

• Mining stakeholders and general public lackawareness of conflicts

Mitigation strategies

Have to be adapted to specific situation!

Promote 

communication 

among all

mining 

stakeholdersRevise existing

 

mining laws to

ensure a better 

balance of costs

and benefits for 

the local 

population

Improve 

capacity of 

administration

Promote

company‐

community 

engagement

Promote and

simplify 

procedures for 

relinquishment

of parts of

permits for

ASM

Mitigation strategies for Tanzania case

Ensure that part of mining revenues comesback to local level

Ensure that artisanal miners are not usedas prospectors and then chased away without compensation

Mitigation strategies for Tanzania case

Better incorporate ASM

Make provision for artisanal exploitation licenses within exploration licenses

Simplify relinquishment ofparts of concessions for ASM

Increase capacity to assist artisanal miners effectively

Promote interaction between all mining stakeholders 

Establish formalcommunication and conflict resolution channels andclearly define their authority

Revise mining laws

Training and financial resources for administration

Communication

Mitigation strategies for Tanzania case

Make companies 

understand 

that they have

to work directly 

with artisanal 

miners

Relinquish 

areas for

ASM

Training in 

relevant skills

andemployment

Livelihood 

diversification

and sub‐

contracting

Assist ASM

organisation/

formalisation

Provide 

micro‐finance 

schemes

Mitigation strategies for Senegal case

Raise awareness of conflicts and their consequencesTake advantage of the early stage of mining sector and the presently low levels ofgrievance and try to prevent conflictsEnsure local beneficiation of andparticipation in mining projects to increase acceptance

Mitigation strategies for Senegal case

Better incorporate ASMIncrease security of 

artisanal mining licenses

Increase accessibilityIncrease capability to 

assist mining stakeholders effectively

Promote interaction between companies and ASM communities 

Ensure the differentparties understand each other‘s perception of their rights, obligations andraisons d‘être

Revise mining laws

Training and financial resources for administration

Communication

Mitigation strategies for Senegal case

Relinquish 

areas forASM

Establish 

education 

channels to

qualify locals in

the skills 

needed by the 

companies

Promote 

employment 

with companies

Promote 

livelihood 

diversification

and sub‐

contracting 

with companies Promote 

effective 

community 

development 

programmes

Conclusion

• Marginalisation of ASM through mining policiesand companies‘ attitude results in substantialgrievances

Mounting grievance causes conflicts 

• Conflicts differ in their level of graveness 

• Mitigation strategies have to be developed according to specific situation

• Goal: secure livelihoods of local population

Mange tak for jeres opmærksomhed

Thank you very much for your attention

Contact: johanna.carstens@projekt‐consult.de