Catalan, Basque and the Education Systems of

France and SpainLucy Rossiter, Alice Howell, Emma Santoyo, Kristina O’Connor, Jo Rapley, Sandra Young, Cristina Dominguez Delgado, Elvira Comas

Leonés

Measures taken to promote Catalan at all levels of the education system

in Spain

• Education has been a key part of the autonomous governments language planning

• There has been conflict between Catalan government and the central government in Madrid

• Overall very successful

Education laws put in place by autonomous government in Catalonia

• During Franco’s dictatorship- Catalan prohibited• But in 1968-Catalan philology offered at University of Barcelona and 1973-

Catalan allowed to be taught as a foreign language• 1975- Franco dies- urge to get Catalan’s status back. Education system

played a key role • July 1978- Catalan becomes part of official state curriculum• October 1979- Catalan Statute of Autonomy written. Article 3 states : ‘la

lengua propia de Cataluña es el Catalan’• 1980- creation of La Dirección General de Política Lingüística- encouraged

social use. Diglossia to bilingualism.• 1982- more Catalan injected into schooling• 1983- Normalisation law- both languages had to be used

Problems faced due to Franco’s repression

• Shortage of trained teachers• Low level of literacy skills in the mother tongue amongst

teachers• Few teaching materials• Continuing dominance of Castilian throughout Spain• Uneven balance of public and private education in Catalonia• Immigration meant some areas were flooded with Castilian

speakers• In contrast, other areas were predominantly Catalan

Further support for education system

• High levels of social and intergenerational support• Government introduces immersion programmes• Early 90’s- Ley Orgánica de Ordenación General del Sistema Educativo-

introduced by Spanish state• Immersion programmes were made compulsory in education system• 1993-4 – Generalitat wanted to make Catalan the vehicular language

and the language to be taught in. Due to 1983 Normalisation Law- this was not possible.

• 1998- Ley de Política Lingüística replaced 1983 Normalisation Law• Mercator education states that Catalan in Spain has been part of the

EMOL project that started in 1991 and finished in 1994

Statistics for Catalan in Catalonia(2001)

• Entiende – 5,837,874• Sabe hablar – 4,602,611

• Lengua habitual – 2,742,600

(Including other regions where Catalan is spoken, around 7.7 million people can speak

Catalan in total.)

Conclusion

• ‘Language planning has been remarkably effective in Catalonia, the heart of this activity centring on the education programme’ Claire Mar-Molinero

The Catalan language in France

• Northern Catalonia• General History and History of Language• Population• Legal status

Catalan in Education

1. Pre-school Education

French: medium of instruction.

Half pre-schools spend three hours a week on regional languages and culture.

In pre-primary classes in public bilingual schools half the number of activities in French and half in Catalan.

Teaching material: no specific textbook or specified material

2. Primary Education French: medium of instruction Three linguistic models:

Initiation: 125 primary schools offer Catalan as subject (about 1 to 3 hours per week). bilingual education: public and private schools. linguistic immersion: Bressolas.

Bressolas: Catalan is the main medium of instruction and French is introduced at the age of 8 for about 6 hours per week (also English lessons).

Arrels Schools: Catalan is the only language of instruction. French is introduced for around 20% of all teaching. Teaching material: no specific textbook or specified material. Teachers can use material from Southern Catalonia and

material proposed by CDDP.

3. Secondary School Catalan as a subject: as a second or third modern language or as an

optional subject (at least three hours per week). Four teaching models: Initiation: one hour per week. Option to the obligatory timetable. Facultative subject: as an optional subject to a maximum of three

hours per week from the first year of collège. Second or third modern language: in the third and fourth year of

collège, normally with 2 to 3 hours per week. Bilangue: two languages as a subject a continuation of the

primary language and a introduction of a second modern language in the first year of the collége.

Catalan as a medium of instruction: vary per school, but usually the Catalan language is taught for about three hours per week, and two classes are taught in the Catalan language.

Bressola: for pupils to become bilingual Catalan is a vehicular language for all subjects.

4. Higher Education

University teaching of Catalan is provided by the Institut Franco-Catalan Transfrontalier at the University of Perpignan (in collaboration with 20 catalan universities linked bye the Joan Lluis Vives Institut).

Teacher training: provided by the Institut universitaire de formation des maîtres

5. Adult Education

Based on private iniciatives and sometimes integrated into community-based programmes.

Difficult to give a complete overview of the adult Catalan Classes. Four levels: basic, elementary, intermediate and perfecting. The number of adults learning Catalan is increasing steadily.

6. Educational Research

Recent investigations showed a high demand for bilingual education.

A investigation carried out by the Bressola Association shows Catalan oral skills are spontaneous and fluent in children. Pupil’s linguistic competence at the end of their education is as good as those of native speakers.

Catalan in other fields

Judicial authorities Public authorities and services Mass media and information technology The Arts The business world Family and social use of the language

Measures to promote the Catalan language

• The Dioxonne law • Ministerial Memorandum • Bayrou memorandum

Organisations for the Promotion of Catalan - Federació per a la Defensa de la Llengua i de la Cultura Catalanes - Institut Rossellonès d'Estudis Catalans - Ómnium Cultural Catalunya-Nord - Centre de Documentació i Animació de la Cultura Catalana

Schools • Bressola • Arrels

Euskal Herria

1936-1960 Monolingüismo• Enseñanza regida por los principios del

Régimen Franquista.• Represión de cualquier símbolo nacionalista

1960 – 1975 Ikastolas• Intento de recuperación de la lengua• Resistencia antifranquista• Clandestinidad (iglesias)• Prohibición e ilegalidad

1976-1982

• Constitución Española (1978)• Estatuto de Autonomía del País Vasco y

Decreto de Bilingüismo (1979): bases delsistema educativo vasco

• Ley de Normalización del Uso del Euskera (1982):- euskera y castellano lenguas oficiales- iniciativas de política lingüística

• CAPÍTULO II.DEL USO DEL EUSKERA EN LA ENSEÑANZA

• Artículo 15. • Se reconoce a todo alumno el derecho de recibir la enseñanza tanto en euskera como en castellano en los diversos niveles

educativos.• A tal efecto, el Parlamento y el Gobierno adoptarán las medidas oportunas tendentes a la generalización progresiva del

bilingüismo en el sistema educativo de la Comunidad Autónoma del País Vasco.• Artículo 16. • 1. En las enseñanzas que se desarrollen hasta el inicio de los estudios universitarios, será obligatoria la enseñanza de la

lengua oficial que no haya sido elegida por el padre o tutor, o, en su caso, el alumno, para recibir sus enseñanzas.• 2. No obstante, el Gobierno regulará los modelos lingüísticos a impartir en cada centro teniendo en cuenta la voluntad de

los padres o tutores y la situación sociolingüística de la zona.• 3. Los centros privados subvencionados con fondos públicos que impartan enseñanzas regladas tomando como base una

lengua no oficial en la Comunidad, impartirán como asignaturas obligatorias el euskera y el castellano.• Artículo 17. • El Gobierno adoptará aquellas medidas encaminadas a garantizar al alumnado la posibilidad real, en igualdad de

condiciones, de poseer un conocimiento práctico suficiente de ambas lenguas oficiales al finalizar los estudios de enseñanza obligatoria y asegurará el uso ambiental del euskera, haciendo del mismo un vehículo de expresión normal, tanto en las actividades internas como externas y en las actuaciones y documentos administrativos.

• Artículo 18. • Los planes de estudio se adecuarán a los objetivos propuestos en los artículos 15, 16 y 17.• Artículo 19. • Las Escuelas Universitarias de Formación del Profesorado, adaptarán sus planes de estudio para conseguir la total

capacitación en euskera y castellano de los docentes, de acuerdo con las exigencias de su especialidad.• Artículo 20. • 1. El Gobierno, a fin de hacer efectivo el derecho a la enseñanza en euskera, establecerá los medios tendentes a una

progresiva euskaldunización del profesorado.• 2. Asimismo determinará las plazas o unidades docentes para las que será preceptivo el conocimiento del euskera, a fin de

dar cumplimiento a lo previsto en los artículos 15 y 16 de la presente Ley.• Artículo 21. • Los alumnos que hayan iniciado sus estudios de E.G.B. fuera de la Comunidad Autónoma del País Vasco o aquellos que

justifiquen debidamente su residencia no habitual en la Comunidad Autónoma, podrán ser eximidos de la enseñanza del euskera según el procedimiento que se establezca a tal efecto.

1983 – 2008

• Decreto 138/1983 - regula el uso de las leguas oficiales- euskera y castellano materias obligatorias- modelos A, B, D - formación del profesorado- requisitios de los enseñantes de euskera

• Ley 1/1993 de la Escuela Pública Vasca: garantiza el derecho de los alumnos a recibir una educación en cualquiera de las lenguas oficiales y ratifica los tres modelos.

Model A•Classes are taught in Spanish•Basque is a taught subject

OBJECTIVES: Gain a sound understanding of

BasqueBe able to express yourself well in

BasqueBe able to immerse oneself well into

the Basque speaking world

Model B

• 50% Classes taught in Spanish, 50% in Basque• First three years of a childs education is taught in

Basque• Children will learn reading, writing and

mathematics in Spanish

OBJECTIVES:Give the pupil the opportunity to take their knowledege of

the language further (career etc)A high level of written, reading and oral comprehension

Model D

• Classes are taught in Basque• Spanish is a taught subject (obligatory)

OBJECTIVES:Consolidate all round competence in Basque

Guarantee a sound knowledge of Spanish

Data from central publications of the Basque Government-

1983-1984 1990-1991 2002-2003

Model Pupils % Pupils % Pupils %

X 60.048 15,24 3.501 1,17 - -

A 227.041 57,63 148.178 49,47 - 30,6

B 41.518 10,54 74.603 24,91 - 22,5

D 65.353 16,59 73.247 24,45 - 46.4

Popularity of Models

Other education systemsPre-school education• Introduction of B & D in 1983• Only Ikastolas pre 1983• Now –:

D = 41% of nursery educationB = 32%A = 26%

Primary education• Adoption of Model B is on the increase, whereas use of Model A is on the decline.• Now :

A = 44%B = 28%D = 28%

Higher Education• Taught in colleges of education and some faculties at

Universities.• University of Basque Country (Euskal Herriko

Unibertsitatea , 39% of compulsory modules are taught in Basque

• 1993-1994, 5.154 students had lectures and seminars in Basque

NavarraZona Vascofona:Spanish and Basque are obligatory but parent has right to choose

which is principle vehicle of education. Can choose A, B or D

Zona MixtaCan choose A, B, D or G

Zona No VascofonaCan choose A or G Teaching of Basque financed and supported dependent on demand

Infant School Primary School Secondary School

Technical Colleges

Classes mostly taught in Basque

23% 16% 10% 4%

Basque taught as a subject

14% 10% 4% n/a

FRENCH BASQUE COUNTRY: • Département of Pyrénées-Atlantiques. “Iparralde” has three areas,

Lapurdi, Nafarroa Beherea and Zuberoa• 1998: 212,400 inhabitants, and approximately 67,000 Basque

speakers, 32%. • 2007: 262,311 inhabitants, concentrated mainly in the Lapurdi

district and 54,648 Basque speakers, 24,7%.• Languages: French and Euskera, the Basque language. • Proportion of Basque speakers: in Nafarroa Beherea 62%, in

Zuberoa 55% and in Lapurdi 27%. People whose first childhood language was Basque, 83% are still Basque speakers, whereas only 4% whose first language was French can speak Basque.

• Basque is the second language for some local institutions in the zone, but is not official already, they don’t have rights: the only official language is French.

EDUCATION IN BASQUE COUNTRY:

• Local authorities are responsible for establishing a particular place for Basque within the education system. The possibility of a Basque education started in the fiftys, but the first ikastola did not open until 1969.

• French education system : units of education (académies). Iparralde forms part of the académie of Bordeaux, where two regional languages are spoken: Basque and Occitan.

• Bilingual education: The Seaska association was set up in Iparralde as an initiative of parents and teachers who wished to revive the Basque language through immersion education.

• Pre-school education: optional in France, three sections: lower, middle, and upper. Ikastola pre-primary schools have appeared since 1969. In these pre-primary schools (ama eskola) all activities are carried out in Basque.

• Primary education: until pupils are eleven years old. Since 1995, the new primary school that consists of three learning cycles, first, basic and consolidation cycles. At the ikastolas special attention is given to the geography and history of the Basque Country. the stage intensif, is a visit of a centre in a completely Basque speaking village.

• Secondary education: The lower level (collège) has four grades for 12 to 15-year-olds. The lycées (16 to 18 years) form the upper level of secondary education. There are three main streams for general education: literary, scientific, and economic. it’s possible to have Basque as a second or third modern language or as an optional subject. There are three ikastola collèges in Cambo, Ciboure and Saint- Just-Ibarre and one Ikastola Lycée in Bayonne.

• Vocational education: is offered to pupils after completion of the lower secondary school (collège), they can study for a professional certificate over a two-year period, preparing them to enter professional life.

• Higher education: Universities, University Institutes of Technology, and the Special State Higher Institutes (Grandes Ecoles). The cycles are the Licence (3 years), the Master (2) and the Doctorat (3). Only the Institut d'Etudes Basques (IEB) in Bayonne offers an entire programme of Basque Studies Licence, a bachelor’s degree with high specialization in Basque language, literacy, and civilisation.

• Adult education: the AEK is responsible for organizing Basque courses for adults. Lastly, the federation of Ikastolas (Basque schools) organizes an open race (Herri Urrats).

Measures taken to promote the Basque language at all levels of the Education system in the French Basque Country

• Organisations for the Promotion of Basque Seaska association AEK - Alfatbetatze Euskalduntze Kaorinakundea Euskalzaindia (Royal Academy of the Basque Language) Ikas Bi/Biga Bai/Euskal Haziak – parents associations Ikas Euskal Pedogogia Zerbitzua Office Public de la Langue Basque (OPLB)

Measures to Promote the Basque Language in the Education System Special initiatives in Primary Education Special initiatives in Adult Education

Laws regarding Education of Regional Languages European Charter for Regional and Minority Language Loi Fillon (Law of Orientation) 23 April 2005

Statistics Mercator Number of schools offering Basque risen from 70 (1993) to 112 (2004) In the same 11 years the number of Basque teachers has risen from 168 to 226 The number of children following bilingual education (parity or immersion) in pre-school and primary school has risen from

2,907 (1993) to 6,149 (2004), that is a 111% increase

Similarities and differences between the education systems in Catalonia and the Basque Country.

• Nationalism - Basque not as much a symbol of nationalism as Catalan.• Parents rights - In both regions they have a right to say in which language they would prefer their children to be taught.• Competency - In order for them to receive their secondary school graduation certificates, children in Catalonia must prove that they are competent in both languages. Due to models, this is not the case in Basque Country.• Teaching methods – 3 hrs of Catalan as well as 3 hrs of Castilian, the rest can be either language. Model B (most popular) – 50% of curriculum to be taught in Castilian, 50% in Basque.• Further education - Most university courses in Catalonia are taught in Catalan. Very few courses available in Basque.

Bibliography• Huguet, A. Language use and language attitudes in Catalonia. Lasagabasta D., A Huguet

(eds.), Multilingualism in European bilingual contexts. Multilingual Matters, 2007.• Mar-Molinero, C. The politics of language in the Spanish speaking world. London: Routledge,

2000.• El bilingüismo en el Estado español. Etxebarría, Maitena. Ediciones FV Bilbao (1995)• La diversidad de lenguas en España. Etxebarría, Maitena. Espasa Madrid 2002• www.barcelona2004.org/esp/eventos/dialogos/docs/ponencias/151p_fetxebarriaesp.pdf• www.mercator-education.org• www.gencat.cat