Biology EOC Review

Questions 1-13

Science Methods• Steps used to solve a problem• Observation• Questioning and stating problems• Hypothesizing• Experimenting – including a control and experimental group

IV – independent variable DV – dependent variable• Tables and Graphs • IV on x-axis and DV on y-axis of a graph

Ex) Effects of pH on Tadpole Survival IV – pHDV-Number of Tadpoles

• In science, a hypothesis that is supported by many separate observations and investigations, usually over a long period of time, becomes a theory.

Theories and lawsTheories and laws

• A theory is an explanation of a natural phenomenon that is supported by a large body of scientific evidence.

•In addition to theories, scientists also recognize certain facts of nature, called laws or principles, that are generally known to be true.

• The nonliving parts of an organism’s environment are the abiotic factors.

• Examples of abiotic factors include air currents, temperature, moisture, light, and soil.

• All the living organisms that inhabit an environment are called biotic factors.

• Examples of biotic factors would be grass, trees, fish, birds, insects and worms.

Ecology

• Ecology – is the study of interactions between organisms and the environment

• Levels of OrganizationBiosphereBiomesEcosystem

CommunityPopulationOrganism

• We study an organisms habitat, niche, and trophic level• Populations – are members of the same species living in

the same place at the same time with the potential to interbreed

Population growth – exponential (J-shape) and logistic (S-Shape)

* Limited by factors like disease and competition that are density-dependent or by density-independent factors like natural disaster.

* Carrying capacity is seen in logistic growth – the maximum number the environment can support

Community Interactions * Competition – intraspecific (same species) or

interspecific (diff sp) * Symbiosis – parasitism, commensalism, and mutualism * Succession – both primary (bare rock) and secondary

(soil)Ecosystem Level – food chains and webs and matter recycling

Energy and trophic levels: Ecological pyramidsEnergy and trophic levels: Ecological pyramids

• The pyramid of energy illustrates that the amount of available energy decreases at each succeeding trophic level.

Pyramid of Energy

Heat

Heat

Heat

Heat

0.1% Consumers

1% Consumers

10% Consumers

100% Producers

Parasites, scavengers, and

decomposers feed at each

level.

Water Cycle

Condensation

Precipitation

Evaporation

Runoff

Groundwater

Evaporation

Transpiration

The Carbon Cycle

Ranges of toleranceRanges of tolerance• The ability of an organism to withstand

fluctuations in biotic and abiotic environmental factors is known as tolerance.

Limits of Tolerance

Organisms absent Organisms

infrequentGreatest number

of organisms

Organisms infrequent

Organisms absent

Zone of intolerance

Zone of Physiological

stressOptimum range

Lower limit Upper limit

Range of tolerancePop

ula

tion

Zone of Physiological

stress

Zone of intolerance

Freshwater biomesFreshwater biomes

Greatest

Warmer layer

Colder layer

Least

Greatest species

diversity

Oxy

gen

an

d

ligh

t p

enet

rati

on

• A covalent bond holds the two hydrogen atoms together.

How covalent bonds formHow covalent bonds form

• A molecule is a group of atoms held together by covalent bonds. It has no overall charge.

Water molecule

• A solution is a mixture in which one or more substances (solutes) are distributed evenly in another substance (solvent).

Mixtures and SolutionsMixtures and Solutions

• Sugar molecules in a powdered drink mix dissolve easily in water to form a solution.

1. Water is Polar

• A polar molecule is a molecule with an unequal distribution of charge; that is, each molecule has a positive end and a negative end.

• Water is an example of a polar molecule.

• Water can dissolve many ionic compounds, such as salt, and many other polar molecules, such as sugar.

Water is Polar

• Water molecules also attract other water molecules.

• Weak hydrogen bonds are formed between positively charged hydrogen atoms and negatively charged oxygen atoms.

Hydrogen atom

Hydrogen atom

Oxygen atom

• Water resists changes in temperature. Therefore, water requires more heat to increase its temperature than do most other common liquids.

2. Water resists temperature changes

3. Water expands when it freezes

• Water is one of the few substances that expands when it freezes.

• Ice is less dense than liquid water so it floats as it forms in a body of water.

Questions 14-21

BiomoleculesBiomolecule Composition Functions

Carbohydrates Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen Sugars, starchesStore and release energy

Lipids Carbon, hydrogen, some oxygen

Fats, oils and waxesStores energy, protects, membranes

Proteins Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, some sulfur

Structure for tissue and organs

Nucleic Acids Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus

RNA and DNAStores cellular information

Enzymes• An enzyme is a protein that changes the rate of a

chemical reaction.

• http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0072495855/student_view0/chapter2/animation__how_enzymes_work.html

EnzymesAn increase in the concentration, pH and temperature will cause the rate of reaction of the enzyme to speed up.

The cell theory is made up of three main ideas:

All cells come from preexisting cells.

The cell is the basic unit of organization of organisms.

All organisms are composed of one or more cells.

Prokaryotic Cell

Eukaryotic Cell

Transport proteins form the selectively permeable membrane and move needed substances or waste materials through the plasma membrane.

Eukaryotic Cell StructuresCell Part Function

Cell Wall Support and ProtectionCell Membrane Maintain homeostasis by allowing some things in and keeps other things outCytoplasm Clear fluid that is the site of chemical reactions and suspends organellesNucleus Contains DNA, codes for all functions of cellNuclear Envelope Surrounds the nucleusNucleolus Produces ribosomesChromatin Loose DNA material, contains genetic codeRibosomes Site of protein synthesisEndoplasmic Reticulum Site of cellular chemical reactionsMicrotubules Support- hollow cylindersMicrofilaments Support - solid protein fibersVacuoles Membrane bound structures used for temporary storageMitochondria Site of cellular respiration – transforms energyGolgi Apparatus Sorts, stacks, and stores proteinsChloroplasts Captures light energy to produce carbohydratesLysosomes Contain digestive enzymesCilia Hair-like projections that move in a wavelike motion flagella Long projections that move in a whip-like motion

Transport Through the Cell MembraneType of Transport

Transport Protein Used?

Direction of Movement

Requires Energy Input from Cell?

Classification of Transport

Simple Diffusion

No With concentration gradient

No Passive

Facilitated Diffusion

YesChannel proteins or carrier proteins

With concentration gradient

No Passive

Active Transport

YesCarrier proteins

Against concentration gradient

Yes Active

Questions 22.27

The Cell CycleThe Cell Cycle

• The cell cycle is the sequence of growth and division of a cell.

• The majority of a cell’s life is spent in the growth period known as interphase.

• Following interphase, a cell enters its period of nuclear division called mitosis.

• Following mitosis, cytokinesis occurs which is when the cytoplasm divides, separating the two daughter cells.

Interphase

Mitosiscytokinesis

MitosisProphase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase

• Chromatin coils• Spindle fibers

form• Nuclear

envelope disappears

• Spindle fibers attach to the centromeres

• Chromosomes move to the equator

• Centromeres split

• Sister chromatids are pulled apart to opposite poles of the cell

• Two distinct daughter cells are formed

• Nuclear membrane reforms

• Cells separate as the cell cycle proceeds into the next interphase

Mendel’s Laws

The law of segregation states that every individual has two alleles of each gene and when gametes are produced, each gamete receives one of these alleles.

The law of independent assortment states that genes for different traits—for example, seed shape and seed color—are inherited independently of each other.

Prophase I: • Chromatin

coils• Spindle fibers

form• Nuclear

envelope disappears

• Crossing over occurs

Metaphase I:• Spindle fibers

attach to the centromeres

• Homologous chromosomes move to the equator

Anaphase I:• Chromosomes

are pulled apart to opposite poles of the cell

Telophase I:• Two distinct

daughter cells are formed

• Nuclear membrane reforms

Cells immediately go into Meiosis II

Prophase II:• Chromatin

coils• Spindle fibers

form• Nuclear

envelope disappears

Metaphase II:• Spindle fibers

attach to the centromeres

• Chromosomes move to the equator

Anaphase II:• Centromeres

split • Sister

chromatids are pulled apart to opposite poles of the cell

Telophase II:• 4 haploid

cells are formed

• Nuclear membrane reforms

• Cells separate

Questions 28-37

Crossing Over Diagram

This pattern of reproduction, involving the production and subsequent fusion of haploid sex cells, is called sexual reproduction.

Meiosis

Meiosis

Sperm Cell

Egg Cell

Haploid gametes(n=23)

Fertilization

Diploid zygote(2n=46)

Mitosis and Development

Multicellulardiploid adults

(2n=46)

What is Meiosis?What is Meiosis?

• Mendel concluded that each organism has two factors that control each of its traits.

• We now know that these factors are genes and that they are located on chromosomes

• Genes exist in alternative forms. We call these different gene forms alleles.

• Mendel called the observed trait dominant and the trait that disappeared recessive.

InheritanceInheritance

T T t t

T t

T t

Phenotypes and GenotypesPhenotypes and Genotypes

• The way an organism looks and behaves is called its phenotype.

• The allele combination an organism contains is known as its genotype.

• An organism’s genotype can’t always be known by its phenotype

• An organism is homozygous for a trait if its two alleles for the trait are the same.

• An organism is heterozygous for a trait if its two alleles for the trait differ from each other.

The two kinds of gametes from one parent are listed on top of the square, and the two kinds of gametes from the other parent are listed on the left side.

Heterozygous

tall parent

T t

T t

T t

T

t

Heterozygous tall parent

T t

T

t

TT Tt

Tt tt

Monohybrid crossesMonohybrid crosses

Resulting genotypes: TT, Tt, and ttResulting phenotypes: 3 tall, 1 short

A Punnett square for a dihybrid cross will need to be four boxes on each side for a total of 16 boxes.

Dihybrid crossesDihybrid crossesPunnett Square of Dihybrid Cross

Gametes from RrYy parent

RY Ry rY ry

Gam

etes

from

RrY

y pa

rent

RY

Ry

rY

ry

RRYY RRYy RrYY RrYy

RRYy RRYy RrYy Rryy

RrYY RrYy rrYY rrYy

RrYy Rryy rrYy rryy

Questions 38-39

Questions 40-42

Questions 43-47

Origin of Life on Earth

Simple organic molecules formed

Scientists hypothesize that two developments must have preceded the appearance of life on Earth.

1. simple organic molecules, or molecules that contain carbon, must have formed.

2. Then these molecules must have become organized into complex organic molecules such as proteins, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids that are essential to life.

A protocell is a large, ordered structure, enclosed by a membrane, that carries out some life activities, such as growth and division.

The first forms of life may have been prokaryotic forms that evolved from a protocell.

Because Earth’s atmosphere lacked oxygen, scientists have proposed that these organisms were most likely anaerobic.

The first autotrophs were probably similar to present-day archaebacteria.

The Endosymbiont Theory

Complex eukaryotic cells probably evolved from prokaryotic cells.

The endosymbiont theory,proposed by American biologist Lynn Margulis in the early 1960s, explains how eukaryotic cells may have arisen.

The endosymbiont theory proposes that eukaryotes evolved through a symbiotic relationship between ancient prokaryotes.

Prokaryote

Aerobic bacteria Mitochondria Cyanobacteria Chloroplasts

Animal Cell

Plant cell

A prokaryote ingested some aerobic bacteria. The aerobes were protected and produced energy for the prokaryote.

Over a long time, the aerobes become mitochondria, no longer able to live on their own.

Some primitive prokaryotes also ingested cyanobacteria, which contain photosynthetic pigments.

The cyanobacteria become chloroplasts, no longer able to live on their own.

The endosymbiont theory

Chloroplasts and mitochondria have their own DNA and ribosomes and they reproduce independently of the cells that contain them

AnatomyAnatomy• Structural features with a common

evolutionary origin are called homologous structures.

• Homologous structures can be similar in arrangement, in function, or in both.

Whale forelimb

Crocodileforelimb

Birdwing

AnatomyAnatomy

• The body parts of organisms that do not have a common evolutionary origin but are similar in function are called analogous structures.

For example, insect and bird wings probably evolved separately when their different ancestors adapted independently to similar ways of life.

• Another type of body feature that suggests an evolutionary relationship is a vestigial structure —a body structure in a present-day organism that no longer serves its original purpose, but was probably useful to an ancestor.

AnatomyAnatomy

• Vestigial structures, such as pelvic bones in the baleen whale, are evidence of evolution because they show structural change over time.

• Darwin observed that the traits of individuals vary in populations. Variations are then inherited.

• Breeding organisms with specific traits in order to produce offspring with identical traits is called artificial selection.

• Natural selection is a mechanism for change in populations. This occurs when organisms with favorable variations survive, reproduce, and pass their variations to the next generation.

• Organisms without these variations are less likely to survive and reproduce.

Questions 48-58

Medulla Oblongata

• The cerebral cortex controls voluntary

movement and cognitive functions• Each side of the cerebral cortex has four lobes– Frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital

Frontal lobe

Temporal lobe Occipital lobe

Parietal lobe

Frontalassociationarea

Speech

Smell

Hearing

Auditoryassociationarea

Vision

Visualassociationarea

Somatosensoryassociationarea

Reading

Speech

TasteSo

mat

osen

sory

corte

x

Mot

or co

rtex

1. Aorta2. Anterior Vena Cava3. Posterior Vena Cava4. Right Atrium5. Left Atrium6. Pulmonary Artery7. Pulmonary Vein8. Right Ventricle9. Left Ventricle10. AV valve11. Septum12. SL valve

Blood’s path through the heartBlood’s path through the heart

• The left atrium receives oxygen-rich blood from the lungs through four pulmonary veins.

Inferior vena cava Left lung

Right lung

Capillaries

Pulmonary vein

Pulmonary artery

Superior vena cava

Aorta

RA

LA

LV

RV

Blood pressureBlood pressure

• Blood pressure is the force that the blood exerts on the blood vessels.

• Blood pressure rises and falls as the heart contracts and then relaxes.

• Blood pressure rises sharply when the ventricles contract, pushing blood through the arteries.

• The body’s earliest lines of defense against any and all pathogens make up your nonspecific, innate immunity

•Intact skin is a formidable physical barrier to the entrance of microorganisms.

Skin and body secretionsSkin and body secretions

• In addition to the skin, pathogens also encounter your body’s secretions of mucus, oil, sweat, tears, and saliva.

• This acquired immune response enables these white blood cells to inactivate or destroy the pathogen.

Acquired ImmunityNon-specific Immune Response

Acquired ImmunityNon-specific Immune Response

• Defending against a specific pathogen by gradually building up a resistance to it is called acquired immunity.

• Artificial passive immunity involves injecting into the

body antibodies that come from an animal or a human who is already immune to the disease.

Passive ImmunityPassive Immunity

Active ImmunityActive Immunity

Recommended Childhood ImmunizationsImmunization Agent Protection Against

Acellular DPT or Tetrammune

MMR

OPV

HBV

HIB or Tetrammune

Bacteria

Virus

Virus

Virus

Bacteria

Diphtheria, pertussis (whooping cough), tetanus (lockjaw)

Measles, mumps, rubella

Poliomyelitis (polio)

Hepatitis B

Haemophilis influenza B (spinal meningitis)

• An antibiotic is a substance produced by a microorganism that, in small amounts, will kill or inhibit the growth and reproduction of other microorganisms, especially bacteria.

Treating DiseasesTreating Diseases

• Although antibiotics can be used to cure some bacterial infections, antibiotics do not have an affect on viruses.

BladderProstrate Gland

Seminal Vesicle Vas Deferens

Urethra

Scrotum

Penis

testicleEpididymis

Male Reproductive Structures

Male Reproductive Anatomy      

Seminal Vesicles: posterior to the urinary bladder; secrete yellowish viscous alkaline fluid containing fructose, vitamin C, and coagulating enzymes

Prostate Gland: inferior to the urinary bladder; produces milky white fluid which activates sperm

Vas deferens: tubes that transport sperm from the testes to the ejaculatory ducts

Urethra: tube that passes urine and semen out of the body. Epididymis: superior to each testis; tubular (5-6 m); maturate

spermScrotum: pouch of skin that holds the testes. Scrotal skin

lengthens and shrinks to maintain sperm temperaturePenis: semen deliveryTestes: produce male sperm and testosterone

Female Reproductive Structures• Ovaries: Production

of eggs• Oviduct (fallopian

tube): transports the egg from the ovary to the uterus

• Uterus: organ in which the egg will implant and the embryo will grow

• Cervix: lower end of the uterus

• Vagina: Birth Canal

• During the first trimester, all the organ systems of the embryo begin to form.

•By the eighth week, all the organ systems have been formed, and the embryo is now referred to as a fetus.

First trimester: Organ systems formFirst trimester: Organ systems form

• Growth is rapid during the fourth month, but then slows by the beginning of the fifth month.

• During the fifth month, fetal movements can be felt by the mother. In the sixth month of development, the fetus’s eyes open and eyelashes form.

•The fetus’s metabolism cannot yet maintain a constant body temperature, and its lungs have not matured enough to provide a

regular respiratory rate.

Second trimester: A time of growthSecond trimester: A time of growth

• During the last trimester, the mass of the fetus more than triples.

Third trimester: Continued growthThird trimester: Continued growth

• During the eighth month, fat is deposited beneath the skin, which will help insulate the newborn.

• By the end of the third trimester the fetus can sustain life outside the mother.

Delivery