Basics (Reports Writing 2)
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Basics of Report Writingpart 2
Basics of Report Writingpart 2
Session 11-12
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Report PatternsReport Patterns
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Report Patterns
Direct pattern Saves Time Easier to understand
Indirect pattern Helps overcome resistance
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Audience Analysis and Report Organization
Direct PatternDirect Pattern
ReportReport
-----Main IdeaMain Idea ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
If readersIf readersare informedare informed
If readersIf readersare supportiveare supportive
If readersIf readersare eager toare eager to
have results firsthave results first
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Audience Analysis and Report Organization
ReportReport
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Main Idea ----Main Idea ----
Indirect PatternIndirect Pattern
If readersIf readersneed to be need to be educatededucated
If readersIf readersneed to be need to be persuadedpersuaded
If readers may If readers may be hostile or be hostile or disappointeddisappointed
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Typical Business Reports
Periodic operating reports. To monitor and control production, sales, shipping, service, etc.
Situational reports. To describe one-time events, such as trips, conferences, and seminars.
Investigative/informational reports. To examine problems and supply facts – with little analysis.
Compliance reports. To respond to government agencies and laws, such as the Federal Employment Equity Act.
Justification/recommendation reports. To make recommendations to management and become tools to solve problems and make decisions.
Yardstick reports. To establish criteria and evaluate alternatives by measuring against the “yardstick” criteria.
Feasibility reports. To analyze problems and predict whether alternatives will be practical or advisable.
Proposals. To offer to solve problems, investigate ideas, or sell products and services.
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Determine the Report PurposeDetermine the Report Purpose
Conduct a preliminary investigation Gather facts to better understand the problem Consult many sources
State the problem in writing To serve as a record To allow others to review it To force the writer to get the problem clearly in mind
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State the problem in one of three ways.
State the problem in one of three ways.
Infinitive phrase: "To measure the effect of radio spot advertising on X company sales"
Question: "What are the effects on X company sales of radio spot advertising?"
Declarative statement: "Company X wants to know how a spot advertising campaign will affect its sales."
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Types of Factors
Determine the FactorsDetermine the Factors
Subtopics in informational and some analytical reports Hypotheses in problem-solving situations Bases in comparison reports
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State the Problem and FactorsUse the infinitive form with subtopics.Use the infinitive form with subtopics.
State the Problem and FactorsUse the infinitive form with subtopics.Use the infinitive form with subtopics.
A consumer research organization plans to test three leading low-priced automobiles in an effort to determine which one is the best buy as a family car for the typical American consumer.
Problem statementTo determine which of three economy cars is the best buy for the American Consumer
FactorsDurability Original and trade-in costsOperating costs RepairsComfort Safety
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State the Problem and FactorsUse the question form with subtopics.Use the question form with subtopics.
State the Problem and FactorsUse the question form with subtopics.Use the question form with subtopics.
A national chain of dress shops wants to learn what qualities to seek in hiring sales personnel.
Problem statementWhat qualities determine the successful salespeople for X Dress Shop?
FactorsEducationCultural BackgroundExperienceVital Statistics (age, height, weight, marital status, religion, etc.)Personal qualities (personality, character, etc.)
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State the Problem and FactorsUse the question form with subtopics.Use the question form with subtopics.
State the Problem and FactorsUse the question form with subtopics.Use the question form with subtopics.
A daily newspaper wants to know how well the various types of items in a typical issue are read.
Problem statementWhat is the readership of the types of items in a typical issue of X newspaper?
FactorsProbably such a study would involve an item-by-item survey. The items would be classified by types, which would be the factors of the problem.World news Local news SocietyEditorials Sports Comics
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State the Problem and FactorsUse the question form with hypotheses.Use the question form with hypotheses.
State the Problem and FactorsUse the question form with hypotheses.Use the question form with hypotheses.
You’ve been assigned the problem of determining why sales at the Moline store have declined. Problem statementWhy have sales declined at the Moline store?
FactorsActivities of the competition have cause the decline.Changes in the economy of the area have caused the decline.Merchandising deficiencies have caused the decline.Changes in the economic environment have caused the decline.
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State the Problem and FactorsUse the infinitive form with bases of comparison.Use the infinitive form with bases of comparison.
State the Problem and FactorsUse the infinitive form with bases of comparison.Use the infinitive form with bases of comparison.
A major soap manufacturer wishes to determine which of three cities would be best for a new factory.
Problem statementTo determine whether Y company’s new factory should be built in City A, City B, or City C.
FactorsAvailability of labor Nearness to marketsAbundance of raw material Power supplyTax structure Community attitudeTransportation facilities
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Gather InformationGather Information
Primary Observation Experiments Surveys
Telephone Mail/Email Web surveys Interviews (personal,
expert) Company records
(raw data)
Secondary Library Online Company records
(interpreted data)
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Attitudes and Practices Conducive to Sound Interpreting
Attitudes and Practices Conducive to Sound Interpreting
Maintain a judicial attitude. Consult with others. Test the interpretations.
1. Test of Experience“Is this conclusion logical in light of all I know?”
2. Negative Test Examine the opposite interpretation--build a case for it.
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Use of Statistical Tools in Interpretation
Use of Statistical Tools in Interpretation
Statistical tools enable writers to simplify data. Most readers can understand descriptive statistics. Writers should explain explicitly statistical techniques used.
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An organizational plan
Organize the InformationOrganize the Information
serves as a blueprint for the report insures order in the report provides headings for use in the report
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5 OrganizationalMethods
Of Structuring
Data
Component
Time
Convention
CriteriaImportance
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Organizational Methods Of Structuring Data
Organizational Methods Of Structuring Data
1) Time:
Establishing a chronology of events
Easy
Often mirrors the way data are collected
Examples
Monthly trip report
Sales rep’s trip
Minutes of meetings
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Organizational Methods Of Structuring Data
Organizational Methods Of Structuring Data
2) Component:
Organized by components such as location, geography, division, product or part
Works best when the classifications already exist
Examples
Expansion plan in different departments on an organization
Comparing profits among departments
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Organizational Methods Of Structuring Data
Organizational Methods Of Structuring Data
3) Importance:
Involves beginning with the most important item and proceeding to the least important or vice versa, keeping in mind the reader’s priorities & expectations
Involves a value judgment
Saves time of busy readers
Probability of retaining the information is high
Examples
Reasons of declination in the monthly sale
Reasons of poor performance of the team
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Organizational Methods Of Structuring Data
Organizational Methods Of Structuring Data
4)Criteria:
Single judgment criteria
Fair Evaluation
Helps reader in making comparison
Examples
Comparing different alternatives of expansion plan
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Organizational Methods Of Structuring Data
Organizational Methods Of Structuring Data
5) Convention:
Operational & recurring reports are structured according to convention and everybody understands that convention
Simplifies organizational task
Saves time & resources
Examples
Weekly or monthly update report
Order booking reports
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Steps in Organizing the Information Steps in Organizing the Information
Construct an outline for the report. Write it out to insure order in the report. Incorporate topics in text of headings. Use either the conventional or decimal division format.
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I. First-level headingA. Second-level headingB. Second-level heading
1. Third-level heading2. Third-level heading
a. Fourth-level(1) Fifth-level
(a) Sixth-levelII. First-level heading
A. Second-level headingB. Second-level headingEtc.
Conventional SystemConventional System
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1.0 First-level heading1.1 Second-level heading1.2. Second-level heading
1.2.1 Third-level heading1.2.2 Third-level heading
1.2.2.1Fourth-level2.0 First-level heading
2.1 Second-level heading2.2 Second-level heading
Etc.
Decimal SystemDecimal System
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Procedure for Constructing an Outline by Process of Division (1 of 3)
Procedure for Constructing an Outline by Process of Division (1 of 3)
Step 1
Divide the whole into comparable parts. This gives the Roman number parts of the outline. Usually an introduction begins the outline. Some combination of summary, conclusion, recommendation ends it.
I.Introduction
II.
III.
IV.
V.
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Procedure for Constructing an Outline by Process of Division (2 of 3)
Procedure for Constructing an Outline by Process of Division (2 of 3)
Step 2
Divide each roman section. This gives the A., B, C headings.
.
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
A
B
ABC
ABC
A
B
A
B
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Step 3
Then divide each A, B, C heading. this gives the 1, 2,3 headings
Continue dividing as long as it is practical to do so.
Procedure for Constructing an Outline by Process of Division (3 of 3)
Procedure for Constructing an Outline by Process of Division (3 of 3)
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
A
B
ABC
ABC
A
B
A
B
12
123
12
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General Bases for DivisionGeneral Bases for Division
Time Place Quantity Factor
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Organization by time
Organization of a Report on the History of Manufacturing in New York
Organization of a Report on the History of Manufacturing in New York
I. Introduction II. Before 1750III. 1750-1800IV. 1801-1850V. Etc.
Main Heading Possibilities Main Heading Possibilities (1 of 4)(1 of 4)
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Organization of a Report on the History of Manufacturing in New York
Organization of a Report on the History of Manufacturing in New York
I. IntroductionII. Northern regionIII. Eastern regionIV. Southern regionV. Etc.
Organization by place
Main Heading Possibilities Main Heading Possibilities (2 of 4)(2 of 4)
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Organization by quantity
I. IntroductionII. More than 500 employeesIII. 20-500 employeesIV. Less than 20 employeesV. Conclusion
Organization of a Report on the History of Manufacturing in New York
Organization of a Report on the History of Manufacturing in New York
Main Heading Possibilities Main Heading Possibilities (3 of 4)(3 of 4)
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Organization of a Report on the History of Manufacturing in New York
Organization of a Report on the History of Manufacturing in New York
I. Introduction II. TextilesIII. FoodsIV. FurnitureV. Etc.
Organization by factors
Main Heading Possibilities Main Heading Possibilities (4 of 4)(4 of 4)
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Combination Division FormsFirst division by time; second division by timeFirst division by time; second division by time
Combination Division FormsFirst division by time; second division by timeFirst division by time; second division by time
I. IntroductionII. Before 1750
A. 1630-1680B. 1681-1710C. 1711-1750
III. 1751-1800A. 1751-1780B. 1781-1800
IV. Etc.
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Combination Division FormsFirst division by time; second division by placeFirst division by time; second division by place
Combination Division FormsFirst division by time; second division by placeFirst division by time; second division by place
I. Introduction II. Before 1750
A. Northern region
B. Eastern regionC. Southern
regionD. Western
regionIII. 1751-1800 A. Northern
region B. Etc.
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Combination Division FormsFirst division by time; second division by factor
Combination Division FormsFirst division by time; second division by factor
I. IntroductionII. Before 1750
A. FoodB. ChemicalsC. TextilesD. Etc.
III. 1751-1800A. FoodB. ChemicalsC. Etc.
IV. Etc.
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Topic or Talking Headings? (1 of 2)Topic or Talking Headings? (1 of 2)
Topic headings identify. I. Population
A. HoustonB. SpringfieldC. San Diego
II. IncomeA. HoustonB. SpringfieldC. San Diego
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Topic or Talking Headings? (2 of 2)Topic or Talking Headings? (2 of 2)
Talking headings identify and indicate what is said about that division.
I. Growing population signals market growthA. Houston leads the nationB. Springfield has steadiest increaseC. San Diego maintains status quo
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Wording of HeadingsWording of Headings
Parallel Construction Conciseness in Wording Variety of Expression
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Parallelism in Construction of Headings
Parallelism in Construction of Headings
Noun Phrase “High Rate of Sales in District III
Sentence “District II Sales Rank Second”
Decapitated Sentence “District I at Bottom”
Equal level headings should be in the same grammatical format whether noun phrase, sentence, or decapitated sentence.
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Point out any violations of grammatical parallelism in the following subheads of
major division of a report.
Point out any violations of grammatical parallelism in the following subheads of
major division of a report.I. Sporting Good Shows Market IncreaseII. Modest Increase in Hardware VolumeIII. Automotive Parts Remains UnchangedIV. Plumbing Supplies Records Slight Decline.
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Point out any violations of grammatical parallelism in the following subheads of
major division of a report.
Point out any violations of grammatical parallelism in the following subheads of
major division of a report.
A. Predominance of Cotton Farming in Southern RegionB. Livestock Paces Farm Income in the Western RegionC. Wheat Crop Dominant in the Northern RegionD. Truck Farming Leads in Central and Eastern Regions
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Conciseness in WordingConciseness in Wording
Not this:Personal appearance enhancement is the most desirable benefit of lasik surgery that patients report.
But this:Personal appearance most desirable benefit.
Headings should be the shortest possible word arrangement.
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Variety of ExpressionVariety of Expression
Not this:A. Illinois Computer SalesB. New York Computer SalesC. Washington Computer Sales
But this:A. Illinois Ranks First in Industry SalesB. New York Maintains Second PositionC. Washington Posts Third Slot
Replace monotonous repetitions of words in topic headings with a variety of words.
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Write the ReportWrite the Report
Be objective. Believability Impersonal vs. Personal Writing
Maintain a consistent time viewpoint. Use smooth transitions. Maintain interest.
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Write the ReportWrite the Report
Be objective. Believability Impersonal vs. Personal Writing
Maintain a consistent time viewpoint. Use smooth transitions. Maintain interest.
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IntroductionIntroduction
Tells the purpose of the report
Describes the significance of the topic
Preview main points
Order
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Headings Headings
Highlight major ideas
Give big picture
Functional Headings Background, Administration, Quality Control etc.
Talking Headings Campus parking problem, Job assessment issues etc
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Headings Headings Use appropriate heading levels
Capitalize and underline carefully
Include at least one heading per page
Keep heading short but clear
Do not repeat word or heading
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TransitionsTransitions
Transitional Expression like additionally, furthermore, on the contrary etc
Show relationship
Reveal logical flow
Requires appropriate usage
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Illustrating With GraphicsIllustrating With GraphicsWhy Graphics?
Easy to understand
Easy to remember
Make numerical data meaningful
Simplify complex idea
Provide summarized information
Visual interest
Protects audience from getting bored
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Three important functions of Graphics
Three important functions of Graphics
Clarify data
Condense and simplify data
Emphasize data
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A DilemmaA Dilemma
Same data can be shown in many different forms, Like: A table A graph – Bar Chart, Pie Chart, Line Chart etc. A mach between appropriate graphic and your objective Decide what data are significant and to be highlighted Who is your audience?
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Forms of GraphicsForms of GraphicsTable
To show exact figures and values
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Forms of GraphicsForms of GraphicsBar Chart
To compare one item with other
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Forms of GraphicsForms of Graphics
Line Chart To Demonstrate changes over time
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Forms of GraphicsForms of GraphicsPie Chart
To visualize a whole unit and the proportions of its components
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Forms of GraphicsForms of Graphics Flow Chart
To display a process or procedure
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Forms of GraphicsForms of Graphics
Organization Chart
To define a hierarchy of elements
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Forms of GraphicsForms of GraphicsPhotograph & Map
To create authenticity or to spotlight a location
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Incorporating Graphics in Reports
Incorporating Graphics in Reports
Evaluate the Audience
Nature of report internal or external
Evaluate reader, content and schedule
For internal report 5-6 graphs
For external report can be more
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Incorporating Graphics in Reports
Incorporating Graphics in Reports
Be Accurate and Ethical
Ensure accuracy of figures
Graphs must not be misleading
Use appropriate scaling
Use references in case of external visuals
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Introduce Graphic meaningfully
Place the graphic close to the discussion point
Use proper reference to every graphics
Draw the concentration towards the conclusion you derived
Interpret them for readers
Incorporating Graphics in Reports
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ConclusionConclusion
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Conclusion of a ReportConclusion of a Report
Most widely read portion of a report which summarizes & explains the findings in a report. Heart of a report which shows goals, background & frame of reference, all should support the conclusion you make.
Audience of a report wants:
How the data in related to the problem being studied?
What do the findings mean in terms of solving the original report problem?
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Conclusion of a Report - Functions
Conclusion of a Report - Functions
Interpret & summarize the findings Don’t manipulate the findings to achieve preconceived purpose
Always try to be objective & bias free Consistent evaluation criteria (same criteria for evaluation…)
Relate the conclusion to the report problem
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RecommendationRecommendation
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RecommendationRecommendation
Conclusions explain what the problem is, while the recommendations tell how to solve it.
Readers prefer specific & practical recommendations agreeable to them. How a suggestion can be implemented
Authorization is required for specification What are you required to do and what does the reader expect?
Avoid using conditional words such as maybe & perhaps………..
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RecommendationRecommendation Try to present the recommendation as a command
Shows your command on the subject
When possible, arrange the recommendation in an announced order, such as important to least important
Can combine the recommendations & conclusions
May omit the conclusion in short reports