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Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank the residents of Bulawayo who participated in the survey. We also express our gratitude to City of Bulawayo especially the Inter- departmental committee on Urban Agriculture and to mention a few Mr. I J Ncube, Mrs. Ndhlovu, Mr. JJ Ndebele, Mr. M Ndlovu and not forgetting his Excellency the Mayor of Bulawayo (Mr. J Ncube) who gave us so much support. We are also indebted to our partners in the Urban Agriculture forum and the Bulawayo UA core team who assisted in what ever way especially MDPESA.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgements ..................................................................................................... 2 Table of Contents ........................................................................................................ 3

1.0 INTRODUCTION: ....................................................................................... 5 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW .......................................................................... 5

2.1. Urban Agriculture in the Region ................................................................ 5 2.2. Production Systems, Input Use and Outputs ........................................... 7 2.3. Post Production and Marketing Activities .............................................. 8 2.4. Participants and Beneficiaries ..................................................................... 9 2.5. Agricultural Support Service Provision .................................................... 9 2.6. Factors promoting urban agriculture ....................................................... 11 2.7. Challenges in urban areas .......................................................................... 12 2.8. Benefits of wastewater reuse ..................................................................... 13 2.9. Changing social expectations and perceptions .................................... 14 2.10. Health and Environmental implications ............................................. 15

3.0 METHODOLOGY ..................................................................................... 16 4.0. BACKGROUND ON BULAWAYO ........................................... 16 5.0. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND TO UA IN BULAWAYO 17

5.1. Post Independence Plans ............................................................................ 18 5.2. Other Background Features of Urban Agriculture in the City ......... 19 5.3. Some Current Urban Agriculture Practices ........................................... 19 a) Designated /Zoned Areas .................................................................................. 19 b) Special Consent Areas ...................................................................................... 20 c) Council Farms ................................................................................................... 20 d) Garden Allotments ................................................................................................ 20 e) Gum Plantation ................................................................................................. 22 f) Khami School Leavers and Co-operatives ........................................................ 23 g) Unauthorised Urban Agricultural Activity ....................................................... 23

5.4. Benefits, Opportunities/Potentials ........................................................... 24

6.0 RESULTS OF QUESTIONNAIRE AND FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSIONS ........................................................................................................ 25 6.1 Demographic details .................................................................................... 25 6.2 Urban Agriculture ........................................................................................ 26 6.3 Wastewater use for urban agriculture ..................................................... 28 6.4 Problems encountered by the farmers ..................................................... 29

7.0 KEY ISSUES FOR UA IN BULAWAYO .................................... 29 7.1. Environment (wastewater, health and pollution) ................................. 29

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7.1.0. Water ......................................................................................................... 29 7.1.2. Wastewater ................................................................................................ 30 7.1.3. Environment .............................................................................................. 30

7.2. Social Issues and Gender ........................................................................... 31 7.3. Policy and Legal Issues .............................................................................. 31 7.3.1. Relevance of provisions ............................................................................ 33 7.3.2. Legal Persona of cooperatives .................................................................. 33 7.3..3. Security of Tenure..................................................................................... 33

7.4. Economics, Nutrition, Food Security ...................................................... 34 7.5. Urban Agriculture - The Planning Issues ............................................... 34 7.5.1. Recent Policy Guidelines .......................................................................... 35 7.5.2. Proposed UA Sites .................................................................................... 35 7.5.3. UA and The Resettlement Programme ..................................................... 35

7.6. Marketing Issues Facing Urban Farmers ............................................... 36 7.6.1. Opportunities for Working with the farmers to improve marketing ......... 37 7.6.2. Challenges to the Marketing potential ...................................................... 37 7.6.3. Training/information needs for urban farmers: ......................................... 38

7.7. HIV and AIDS in Urban Agriculture ...................................................... 38 7.7.1. Impact of HIV and AIDS in Agriculture .................................................. 38

7.7.2. Woodville Association (Women Vulnerability) ........................................... 38 7.7.3. Woodville Orphans ................................................................................... 39

8.0. CONSTRAINTS AND PROBLEMS ..................................................... 39

9.0. POLICY DEVELOPMENT PROCESS ...................................... 41 9.1. Some Highlights of the Proposals and Policy Guidelines ................. 41 9.1.2. Immediate/Short Term Proposals/Policies ................................................ 41 Cultivation along vleis/streams................................................................................. 41 9.1.3. Medium Term Proposals – 6 – 10 years ................................................... 42 9.1.4. Long Term Projects/Proposals – Over 10 years ....................................... 42

10.0. CONCLUSION AND WAY FORWARD ................................ 42 10.1. Way Forward ............................................................................................. 43

REFERENCES: ........................................................................................................ 44

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1.0 INTRODUCTION: Urbanisation in the developing world has intensified in the last twenty years and is expected to continue in the coming years. Countries that are urbanizing the most rapidly are also among the least well-prepared to satisfy their food needs, and many already depend precariously on food aid and imports (Mougeot, 2000). Famine and droughts are threatening million of lives in Southern Africa and in 2003 an estimated 14.4 million were at risk of starvation in Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Swaziland, Zambia, and Zimbabwe (World Vision, 2003). Although mechanisms such as drought relief and food-for-work programmes have been devised to assist the rural communities, in most cases the urban poor are left to fend for themselves. Wastewater reuse for agricultural purposes, an ancient practice being revisited because of growing water scarcity, could play an important role in ensuring food security and enhancing the livelihoods of the urban poor in Southern Africa. Urban agriculture may be one way to bolster city food supplies while also increasing the incomes of the poor. It uses resources, products, and services found in and around the urban area and, in turn, often supplies resources, products, and services to that area. Urban agricultural systems include horticulture, floriculture, forestry, aquaculture, and livestock production (Mougeot, 2000). The United Nations Development Programme estimates that 800 million people are engaged in urban agriculture worldwide, with the majority in Asian cities. Of these, 200 million are considered to be market producers, employing 150 million people full time. Thus it is an important supply source in developing-country urban food systems, a critical food-security valve for poor urban households. Public health concerns stem from the handling and application of untreated or improperly treated wastes to food crops; the exposure of crops to air, water, or land pollution, including possible contamination from heavy metals; and unsafe disposal of vegetable and animal wastes. Though the benefits of using wastewater can be considerable from the economic point of view, there are also environmental and health risks involved. Mitigating these risks and maximising benefits requires holistic approaches that involve all stakeholders.

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. Urban Agriculture in the Region Urban and peri-urban agriculture, incorporating production and livestock keeping, has become part of the food security system in the urban areas of most countries in Eastern and Southern Africa. In addition, urban agriculture is now an established strategy for sustaining livelihoods of urban populations. It directly provides food and indirectly generates household cash income through saving on food expenditure, employment and selling of surplus production. Urban agriculture expanded massively in the last twenty years in response to changes in the micro-economic environment characterized by poor economic performance resulting in increase in poverty levels in the urban areas. Until the mid-1990’s, few local authorities and central governments recognized urban agriculture

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as a legitimate land use. With increasing poverty in the urban areas, city planners and national policy makers now recognize the central role of urban and peri-urban agriculture in the wider urban economy. It is now generally recognized urban and peri-urban agriculture apart from contributing to household food security; it has a wide role in sustaining urban population in terms of poverty alleviation and contribution to the urban economic activities through processing and marketing of the produce. Most governments and local authorities now support urban agriculture and are seeking ways with which to facilitate sustainable, safe and profitable production. Urban agriculture and peri-urban agriculture have been incorporated into urban expansion plans for Dar-es-Salaam, Dodoma in Tanzania, Maputo in Mozambique (Mougeot, 2000). Active programmes exist in most cities in South Africa. In Zimbabwe, several cities and municipalities now have an accommodating approach to urban agriculture. The Ministry of Local Government and National Housing has pledged more land from acquired surrounding farms to local urban authorities for urban agriculture. The expansion of urban agriculture is a worldwide phenomenon that has caught the attention of policy makers, activists and funding agencies as a new response to issues of food security, economic development, poverty alleviation, urban blight, waste recycling and environmental preservation. While this is the case, it is apparent that formal support for urban and peri-urban agriculture is still to be developed in Eastern and Southern Africa. Policy, legislation, institutional support and advisory services are yet to be designed in the majority of the urban areas and countries. These recent developments and acceptance of urban agriculture presents challenges for planning and managing the urban space for urban agriculture. Studies in the region (Mlozi, et al, 1992; Drescher, 1996; Mbiba, 1995; Mudimu, 1996, Nuwagaba and Atukunda, 2001) show that urban and peri-urban agriculture contributes greatly to the food security of many urban residents. It enhances considerably the degree of self-sufficiency in cereal, fresh vegetable and small livestock production. Self-produced food provides nutritious food otherwise unaffordable, replaces purchased staples or supplements these with more nutritious foodstuff, affords savings that can be spent on non-produced foodstuff or other needs and generates principal income that can be reinvested in other urban businesses (Mougeot, 2000). Urban and peri-urban agriculture also provides employment to a large number of urban residents. In Nairobi, for example, 25% of the population is employed in urban and peri-urban agricultural activities (Nugent, 2000). A study by Drescher (1994) revealed that close to 40 percent of households in Lusaka, Zambia, relied on the urban environment to gather, or grow, food for home consumption and sale. Lee-Smith (1991) reported that a 1985 study in Nairobi, Kenya, showed that 29 percent of Nairobi households grew crops and 17 percent raised livestock with a total value of US$17 million. In 1991, Mbiba assessed urban agriculture comprising of dairy cows, maize, sheep and pigs in Maseru, Lesotho, at close to US$13 million (Mbiba, 1995). In Zimbabwe, it has been shown that maize production is dominant and supplies households with up to three months of their stable diet.

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2.2. Production Systems, Input Use and Outputs Urban and peri-urban agriculture varies from city to city and country to country. The two main forms of UA in Bulawayo are off-plot and on-plot UA. Off-plot cultivation and livestock grazing take place along railway lines, open areas, on the periphery of parks, undeveloped public and private land, properties of schools and churches and urban fringe. Table 1 summarizes the variety of farming systems in urban areas.

Urban farmers range from a household garden in 20 m2 or less, to a small-scale farmer making a living on 200 m2, to a large-scale operator who may use up to10 hectares in an industrial zone (UNDP 1996).

Table 1. Range of Farming Systems in Bulawayo and other cities in Zimbabwe

Farming

systems Product Location or technique

Horticulture Vegetables, fruit, herbs, beverages, compost

Home sites, parks, rights-of-way, containers, rooftops, hydroponics, wetlands, greenhouses, shallow bed techniques, layered horticulture

Floriculture Flowers, house plants Ornamental horticulture, rooftops, containers, greenhouses, rights-of-way

Animal Husbandry

Milk, eggs, meat, manure, hides, and fur

In the peri-urban zone

Agro forestry Fuel, fruits and nuts, compost, building material

Street trees, home sites, steep slopes, green belts, wetlands, orchards, forest parks, hedgerows

Mycoculture Mushrooms, compost Sheds,

Vermaculture Compost, worms for fish feed Sheds, trays, wetlands

Apiculture Honey, pollination, wax Beehives, rights-of-way, home sites

Landscape gardening, arboriculture

Grounds design and upkeep, ornamentation, lawns, gardens

Yards, parks, play fields, commercial frontage, road sides, lawn and garden equipment

Beverage crops cultivation

Grapes (wine), hibiscus, palm tea, coffee, sugar cane, herbed tea, banana (beer)

Steep slopes, beverage processing

Sources: Modified from Rowntree 1987 and UNDP 1996.

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There is not much of protected environments and hydroponics in the majority of cities in Zimbabwe.

A review of existing bibliography on UA experiences in Zimbabwe shows that most production system in is the family vegetable gardens. The main produce grown is vegetables (tomatoes, squash, beans, lettuce, onions, etc.); The second fairly well developed activity is the breeding/raising of small livestock (pigs, chickens, hens, rabbits, etc.), which are fed with the vegetal production residues. Family units mainly carry out this activity.

Urban agriculture usually engages shorter-cycle, higher-value market crops and uses multi-cropping and integrated farming techniques located where space and water are scarce. It uses both vertical and horizontal space to its best advantage. Most of the production is intensive using simple technologies. Urban agriculture uses, reuses natural resources, and urban wastes to produce crops and livestock. The principal feature of urban farming is the reuse of waste. The processes are typical of agriculture with similar inputs and steps, but the design is to use both human and animal wastes as fertilizer and water sources for growing vegetation. In this near idealized model, external inputs still exist, however, such as pesticides (UNDP 1996).

There is few data on which to base a sound judgment about input use, costs, manpower requirements, output and the importance of urban food production with respect to the diet and income of the family. This is because past research, which focused on specific towns and cities, did not use a common methodological approach that would allow aggregation and comparative analysis.

On-plot production for self-consumption requires few resources at the individual family level. A hundred square metres intensively cultivated can supply the vegetables needed for a family of five persons. The labor required to maintain an urban garden ranges from 1 to 1.5 working days per week. Costs are low because one can use materials that are already available to households, even garbage.

2.3. Post Production and Marketing Activities

Agriculture conducted in urban areas exists largely for the daily needs of consumers within cities and towns. Outputs are oriented to urban markets rather than national. Generally, the observations are that households consume up to 90 percent of their production (Rogerson, 1993; Mbiba, 1994, 2000, Mudimu, et al 1996, Nuwagaba and Atukunda, 2001). The balance is marketed for cash or exchanged through social obligations. Most family vegetable gardens are for self-consumption. Although output is not large, it affords diversification and a supplement to the basic diet.

Peri-urban agriculture generally is the major source of most fresh vegetables consumed in cities. Most is practised on intensive commercial basis with high levels of input use and under irrigation. In the case of Kampala in Uganda, Nairobi in Kenya, to some extent

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Harare in Zimbabwe, and several cities in South Africa, peri-urban agriculture is highly integrated with production of high value export horticultural crops.

2.4. Participants and Beneficiaries In all countries within the region, the practice of urban agriculture increased markedly during the post-1991 years due to the economic hardships brought about by the economic structural adjustment programme initiated in 1990. This included cost recovery measures in health and education, removal of subsidies on food commodities and retrenchments in the formal employment sectors. These have in turn contributed to falling real incomes and reduced food security status of urban households. These hardships resulted in vulnerable households turning to urban cultivation as an alternative source of food, to save on food expenditure and raise cash income. Urban cultivation had become an important strategy through which families sought to cope with the impact of the economic structure adjustment and sustain their livelihood.

Most studies show that the main beneficiaries of urban agriculture are low-income families living in suburban or marginal city areas. The majority of the practitioners do not have permanent employment. Women are the main workers. Those involved tend to be resident in the old urban settlements, as opposed to recent migrants from rural areas.

Urban farmers and gardeners come from a wide range of economic levels, ethnic backgrounds and relationships to the market. While in the 1970s, urban agriculture was a survival strategy for the poor, this changed in the 1980s and 1990s. A significant proportion of the medium income earners are now actively participating in urban agriculture (Nuwagaba and Atukunda, 2001; Mudimu, 1996). Until recently, the majority of participants had been women. In nearly all the countries, men are now participating in urban agriculture activities for direct production of food and as source of wage income from employment. This is attributed to stagnant economic growth resulting in reduced employment prospects for men. Thus urban agriculture has become one of the self-reliance strategies adopted by the urban population to mitigate against adverse macro-economic conditions by a cross section of the urban socio-economic groups. A study conducted by Hungwe in Bulawayo and Gweru indicated that the majority of the farmers were females (60%) while the remainder were males. Whilst urban farming is not limited to any age group, the majority of the farmers in the Bulawayo-Gweru survey were found to belong to the 21-40 and 61-80 age groups. Level of education was also not a critical factor.

2.5. Agricultural Support Service Provision

Urban agriculture needs to be supported with services like extension, inputs, research, credit, and market information among others. Good information and technical support is very important to strengthen the chance of obtaining food crops to meet the needs of a family. Lack of technical know-how, poor production techniques, improper use and lack of training in proper application of agro chemicals contributes to low output and to some extent on the environmental degradation. Urban producers need to be taught efficient and

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safe production methods and in some case new technologies for intensive land use, such as hydroponics. In addition, farmers need information on affordable crop and animal varieties appropriate for intensive production in the urban environments are needed.

Various studies show that there are few cities with urban agriculture extension services by government, private and non-governmental organizations, supporting urban on-plot and off-plot agriculture. Most vegetable gardens worked by low-income beneficiaries do not benefit from adequate technical guidance or orientation. This is a legacy from the past when urban agriculture was not formally recognized. The situation for peri-urban farmers with more resources and knowledge is somewhat different. They have more resources; they work with improved seeds, drip irrigation, use fertilizers and pesticides, and have lands that are more suitable.

Where public extension programmes have been established, it has been shown that the agricultural extension workers do not have skills for working with urban farmers as they were trained for rural farming areas where the environment and technological requirements are different from urban areas, hence poor extension support for urban agriculture. Because there are no established programmes for providing support services to urban producers, the producers are left to use their own knowledge on technical issues. In the majority of the cities, the producers rely on knowledge from their rural agricultural background. This in most cases is in adequate as the environments are usually different and technologies may have changes with time. The producers purchase inputs (fertilizers, seeds, pesticides, herbicides), from accessible retail shops. These shops, which stock the inputs based on demand by local resident, do not have technical backup from the manufacturers. Thus, the retailers are not reliable sources of technical information and advice. Consequently, the producers buy and apply inappropriate inputs such as seed varieties, fertilizers and chemicals. Also due to high cost of seeds, fertilizers and pesticides, many urban producers using none or less of these in their production. Furthermore, they may buy and the least expensive inputs which may be inappropriate. High water rates and general water unavailability in most of the cities in Zimbabwe and the region in general, are making urban agriculture, especially on-plot gardening uneconomic. Mudimu (2001) observed that in some urban areas of Harare, on-plot gardening has stopped dues to high water costs. Seasonal water shortages, especially in the dry season when the water table is lowest, as well as general non-availability of irrigation water limit production in both urban and peri-urban areas. This creates production gaps that exacerbate deficits in produce supply of the problem of seasonality. There has been some but limited research and development of efficient water use techniques for urban agriculture, such as systems for utilizing wastewater and use of hydroponics.

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These trends contribute greatly to concerns the future of urban and peri-urban agriculture. Given that demand for urban agriculture land exceeds the supply, there is need to come up with strategies for making suitable land available. One possible solution is designation and or the conversion of unused parcels of farmland around urban environment for agriculture purposes. This requires identification of public/unused land that might be available for local food production.

2.6. Factors promoting urban agriculture Migration of people from rural to urban areas has increased significantly in the last two decades (World Bank, 2003). Push and pull factors including limited livelihood options have been suggested as reasons for this migration (Bunting et al, 2002). Rapid urbanization has placed immense pressure on the world’s fragile and dwindling fresh water resources and the already over burdened sanitation systems. In 2002 half of the world’s population was living in urban areas and it is estimated that by 2025 the urban population will double, adding 2 billion inhabitants to cities (World Bank, 2003). Poverty is also urbanizing, with between 30 and 70% of the urban population living below the poverty datum line of USD$1 per person per day (World Bank, 2003). The urban population in the SADC region is expected to increase from 201,420,000 (34%) in 2000 to 362,480,000 (50%) by 2025 (World Bank, 2003). Windhoek, the capital of Namibia has experienced a rapid population increase since independence in 1990. This increase is expected to continue for a considerable time and even to double by 2006, since Windhoek is the nucleus of economic growth (Frayne, B (2002). According to Frayne, B. (2002) it is usually the hope of getting into the wage sector to make money and buy car or house not the reality that drives migrants. The population of Windhoek represents some 35% of the total urban population that constitutes 12% of the total population of Namibia (City of Windhoek, 1996). Similarly Harare the capital of Zimbabwe has an approximate population of 2 million residents which represents about a sixth of the total country’s population (CSO, 2002). The rapid urbanization, which usually reduces agricultural productivity due to change of occupation by migrants, and the incessant droughts prevailing in Southern Africa are threatening millions of lives particularly in urban areas (World Vision, 2003). In the urban areas employment opportunities have dwindled, salaries have been depressed and the cost of living has drastically increased due to various factors such Economic adjustment programmes (ESAP) that many developing governments embarked upon in the 1990s (Logie and Woodraffe, 1993, Loewenson, 1993). Furthermore the dual homes system which encouraged wives to stay in rural homes, seeing their husbands occasionally, is gradually ending partly due to the HIV and AIDS advocacy messages that encourage spouses to live together (UNDP, 2003). This has disrupted cultivation on pieces of land in the rural areas that have in the past supplemented family incomes. Thus, rural -urban migration, in a way, has contributed to food shortages nationally and even at household level (Armar-Klemesu, 2002)). Mechanisms such as food relief and food for work have been mainly devised to assist the rural communities but no similar mechanisms are in place for the urban poor. In order to avert hunger and improve their

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livelihoods the majority of urban poor residents now rely heavily on urban agriculture (World Bank, 2002). Urban agriculture is one of the main activities urban residents are undertaking in an effort to ensure food security and alleviate poverty (MDP, 2003). Urban agriculture has been demonstrated to contribute to food security of many urban residents in Eastern and Southern Africa. City case studies in the region by researchers such as Mlozi 1992; Dreschler, 1996; Mbiba, 1995; Mudimu, 1996 show a considerable degree of self sufficiency in cereal, fresh vegetables and small livestock production (MDP, 2003). Though urban agriculture has shown potential to alleviate urban poverty the urbanization process sets a big challenge. Feeding the urban poor will therefore become one of the major challenges which most governments in developing countries will have to deal with. Agriculture is an important activity in southern Africa in terms of food security, economic activity and water use. Irrigated agriculture plays a disproportionately important role because it is generally two to three times more productive than rain-fed agriculture. While water for irrigated agriculture is fast becoming limited, most urban utilities generate a lot of wastewater from their treatments plants which they have problems in managing. Example of urban authorities failing to manage their wastewater is apparent in Harare. Wastewater reuse for agricultural purposes could play an important role in enhancing food security and the livelihoods of the urban poor in Southern Africa especially in terms of it being a cheap and reliable resource.

The 2003 study in Bulawayo and Gweru indicated that 48% of those who practice urban farming in the two cities were doing it because it ensured household survival. 35% cited various other reasons ranging from farming as a hobby, cultural reasons or for economic reasons. Eighty seven percent also cited that urban agriculture provided them with a variety of cheap food.

2.7. Challenges in urban areas Urbanization is an indicator of development. In the next 20 years, urbanization will intensify in most developing countries, but Africa and Asia will witness the most explosive urban growth. Ironically, countries that are urbanizing most rapidly are also among the least well-prepared to satisfy their food needs, and many already depend precariously on food aid and imports (Mougeot, (2000). In the case of Katutura, Namibia transferring food into urban areas is an important way of coping. The majority of households that were surveyed indicated that they received significant amounts of Namibia’s staple grain, millet from rural relatives (Frayne, B, 2002). Exploring opportunities for urban agriculture may reduce this dependency of urban populations on rural populations for food. While development is desirable and necessary this results in increased developmental pressure for many developing governments. These developmental pressures include water and sanitation services to the expanding population. One consequence of rapid urbanization is increased volumes of wastewater (Buechler et al, 2002). Wastewater treatment is costly and in most cases a small percentage of the wastewater volume is

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treated due to lack of maintenance of infrastructure and insufficient funds. Many treatment plants become disused after short periods of operation (Buechler et al, 2002). Some developing countries that cannot afford extensive wastewater treatment systems, dispose the wastewater on pasture lands (Chimbari et al, 2003). Many governments have not seriously considered low cost treatment technologies for treatment of wastewater, although there is evidence that through the involvement of stakeholders and appropriate decentralization, wastewater treatment technologies can be developed (Cavallini and Young, 2002). In Latin America efforts have been made to promote the integration of treatment systems and agricultural use. However the integration of treatment authorities and agriculture is not obvious (Cavallini and Young, 2002). Irrigation with municipal wastewater is practiced in many urban and peri-urban areas of developing countries. In Zimbabwe wastewater irrigation has been practiced for over 30 years as a means of diverting effluent and sludge that does not meet standards for disposal into the natural courses. The practice has largely been restricted to pasture irrigation (Chimbari et al, 2003). In Windhoek municipal wastewater has largely been used to irrigate sports fields and golf courses (City of Windhoek, 1996). In the SADC region’s cities it has been reported that women and men are practicing urban agriculture on open municipal and undeveloped lands. Urban farming particularly in the form of market gardening has become widespread in many African cities (Ouedraogo, B, 2002). This practice has become a significant source of the food security and household cash in urban areas (Midimu et al, 1998). Dreschler (1994) reported that 40% of households in Lusaka, Zambia relied on urban agriculture to grow food for home consumption and sale. In Nairobi, Kenya, Lee-Smith (1991) reported that 29% of households in the urban areas grew crops and 17% raised livestock with total value of US$17 million. In Harare, Zimbabwe an estimated 50-60% of 10 000 hectares of open and undeveloped land in urban areas is under cultivation (Masoka, 1995).

2.8. Benefits of wastewater reuse Indirect or direct wastewater reuse is practiced in various countries such as Botswana, Tunisia, South Africa, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Malawi, Namibia Burkina Faso, Mexico, India, Ghana and Pakistan (UNEP, 2000). In indirect reuse effluents from treatment plants are discharged through a secondary polishing process before the water is abstracted elsewhere. This system has been shown to be effective in terms of water resources management since the wastewater generated is economically attractive for irrigation. In direct use, wastewater from conventional or wastewater stabilization ponds is directed by a system of pipes or canals to a night storage reservoir from which it is used for pasture or crop irrigation. Namibia is one of the developing countries that reclaim domestic wastewater thereby contributing to about 20% of the total bulk water requirements (City of Windhoek, 1996). Benefits of using wastewater have been investigated in various parts of the world particularly in Asia, West Africa and Latin America. Studies by Drechsel et al, 2002, Ensik et al, (2002) and Van der hoek et al, (2002) demonstrated the potential of wastewater in the improvement of livelihoods and employment opportunities. In

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Faisalabad the study confirmed that wastewater irrigation offers benefits that can help many rural water-short areas in Pakistan and increase their agricultural productivity and profitability (Ensik et al, 2002). Peri-urban farmers in Kumasi, Ghana were reported to be generating revenue as high as US$6 million (US$500/ha/yr) with profits of at least US$4 million from irrigation of vegetables using wastewater (Cornish, et al., 2001 in Drechsel et al., 2002). Similar observation were made in India, City of Hyderabad, where an estimated 833 pounds per year is generated by farmers from leafy vegetables. The United Nations Developmental programme estimated that 800 million people were engaged in urban agriculture worldwide, with the majority in Asian cities. Thus urban agriculture is an important supply source in developing countries’ urban food systems as well as a critical food security valve for poor urban households (Mouget, 2000). Wastewater has been demonstrated to be a cheaper and more reliable water resource for agriculture in low-income dry areas (WHO, 2001). Wastewater contains nitrogen and phosphorus which may result in higher yields than freshwater irrigation without additional fertilizer application (Papadopoulos in Naser, 2000). It also preserves the high quality expensive fresh water for the highest value purposes. The situation in Pakistan demonstrates a widespread and pervasive practice of wastewater reuse by resource-limited people. In Pakistan an estimated 25-35 million people in the Indus basin live in areas with brackish groundwater and very low rainfall and thus depend on surface irrigation for all their water needs and hence wastewater is an important resource for livelihoods (Scott, C.A et al, 2000). It was also demonstrated that the cost of using wastewater was cheaper than canal water irrigation, although wastewater farmers required more frequent and intensive labour inputs. Other benefits of using wastewater include recycling of nutrients, decreasing discharges to sensitive water bodies, creation or enhancement of wetlands and riparian (stream) habitats. and disposal of municipal wastewater in a low cost and hygienic way. Bunting, S, W. et al,(2002) suggested that economic benefits generated through the productive reuse of wastewater could potentially subsidies the development and maintenance of treatment strategies. Similarly, studies by (Buechker, and Scott, (2000) indicated that the continued application of wastewater to agricultural land would be a more economical form of wastewater treatment than building a wastewater treatment plant.

2.9. Changing social expectations and perceptions People all over the world have different perceptions regarding waste with some expressing deep disgust and others expressing practical preferences. However, the ultimate behaviour is partly determined by survival economics and these apply to many water poor countries and some water rich countries of the north (WHO,2002). Some countries such as China, Japan and India have used wastewater for irrigation for over 100 years. In China over 1.3 million hectares are irrigated with wastewater and this is a reflection of the high social importance of using wastewater as a resource (WHO, 2002). Wastewater remains and will continue to remain a cheap reliable source of water and

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nutrients. The common view of many policy makers is that use of untreated wastewater is unacceptable and can only provide benefits when treated further. This disadvantages the poor farmers who are unlikely to benefit from the treatment of wastewater (van der Hoek, et al, 2002). The perceptions on the use of wastewater is driven by socio-cultural factors that require consideration. In Southern Africa mechanisms such as social pressure and obligation have been identified as constrains to the adoption of wastewater use activities that have potential to elevate individuals above their defined social status (Sen, 1995). As indicated above survival economics drive communities to adopt methods of improving livelihoods including the use of wastewater for agriculture. The case studies on use of wastewater such as that of Haroonabad, India demonstrated the economic value of untreated wastewater. Although there are obvious economic benefits of wastewater use, the important negative impacts on human health should not be overlooked.

2.10. Health and Environmental implications The potential contribution of the products from urban agriculture using wastewater to the food security of poor households and communities have been highlighted above. The short-term benefits of wastewater reuse in urban agriculture could be offset by the health and environmental implications. The main problem is the threat to public health, soil and water, if reuse is not done carefully. Wastewater composition varies according to its origins; domestic, hospital and industrial. It is known that wastewater contains chemical pollutants such as heavy metals and pathogens (Bacteria, viruses, helminths etc ) that threaten the health of humans as well as the environment (Madyiwa et al, 2002). The main impact on health from reuse in developing countries is from diseases caused by microbial pathogens and helminths, such as roundworms, hookworms and guinea worm. The worst-case situation occurs when untreated wastewater is used to irrigate vegetables or salad crops that are eaten raw. This practice resulted in a cholera outbreak in Jordan (Baroque, 2002). Hillel, et al. (1986) reviewed studies on wastewater irrigation and concluded that in areas where helminths diseases are endemic the highest risk of wastewater irrigation was the promotion of helminth transmission followed by transmission of enteric bacteria, protozoa and enteric viruses. Studies by Van der Hoek, (2002) provided evidence of an increased risk of helminths infection and diarrhoeal diseases among farmers exposed to wastewater. In contrast Blumenthal et al, (2000) found no convincing evidence that wastewater workers are at a higher risk of protozoan, bacterial and viral infections . Although the study by Blumenthal et al, (2000) showed lower risk to pathogens, wastewater should be regarded as a threat to public health, soil and water if not done properly. Although use of wastewater has many benefits the use of this water without the necessary precautions poses serious health risks. Thus it is important that health issues be addressed in order to make wastewater use safe and sustainable. Short-term studies on sewage sludge disposal have been carried out in Zimbabwe. The short term studies concluded that sewage sludge significantly increased the Zn, Cu, Ni and Pb content of the surface soil which happens to be the depth within which plants roots draw nutrients (Nyamangara and Mzezewa, (1999, Madyiwa et al, 2002). The studies also indicated the possibility of heavy metals accumulation in the soil and the

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potential uptake of larger amounts by pasture grass and subsequent uptake by beef cattle. Madyiwa et al, (2002) demonstrated that Pb and Cd accumulate in pasture grasses to levels beyond the recommended limits but found traces of Pb and Cd in cattle raised on pastures irrigated using wastewater (Chimbari et al, 2003). Wastewater can also salinize soils and the grease in raw wastewater can reduce soil permeability and aeration by clogging pores. In the long term, nitrate can cause public health risk by contaminating shallow aquifers (Naser, 2000). These obstacles to wastewater reuse are real but not insurmountable. In fact, in 1989, the World Health Organization published guidelines for the safe use of wastewater and excreta in agriculture and aquaculture to protect the public. The guidelines identified necessary treatment levels depending upon whether the irrigation is unrestricted (cereals, fodder crops or pastures) or restricted (irrigation of crops likely to be eaten uncooked, public parks). In general the guidelines, apart from identifying a combination of treatment and crop restrictions, they also outline safe wastewater application methods and control of human exposure which ensure safety to the public as well as the environment.

3.0 METHODOLOGY Various methods were used to gather information used in the compilation of this report. These included desk studies, interviews with farmers and key informants, mapping, focus group discussions and participatory rapid appraisal (PRA). Extensive desk study was conducted in order to get insights into what has been written about urban agriculture in Bulawayo. There is not much written on urban agriculture on the city per se but the little available was collaborated with some from materials written about other cities in Zimbabwe. Interviews using questionnaires and interview guides were conducted to gather data on level of use, observations. Knowledge, attitudes and practices of the policy makers, urban poor in terms of their UA activities and the use of wastewater for agricultural purposes. Focus group discussions were also conducted with wastewater farmers. Policy makers were purposively selected and these were from the Bulawayo Municipality department and Government departments, (Bulawayo City (Town Planning Department, Legal Department, Parks and Housing, Town Clerk, Engineering Department), Arex, Ministry of Local Government and urban Housing Development . A total of 160 household questionnaires were administered and the data was analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Scientists (SPSS version 10).

4.0. BACKGROUND ON BULAWAYO Bulawayo is the second largest city in Zimbabwe and is located about 435 kilometres away from Harare in the southwestern part of the country. It is renowned for its wide streets and was at one time the hub of heavy industry in the country. It is a city located on an area selected by Lobhengula , last of the Ndebele Kings for his personal kraal. It was declared a town by Dr. Jameson on 1st June 1894 and declared a municipality on 27th October 1897. Made a city on 4th November 1943. and has the following characteristics:

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• Altitude -1370m above sea level

• Latitude -20deg 09min S

• Longitude -28 deg 37min E

• Rainfall, Average Annual -575mm

• Temperature, average mean –varies from 14degC in June to 22deg C in October

• Spatial coverage - 630km2

• Estimated population at 2000 was1 million Bulawayo’s geographical position within the Southern African region is very central. Its location, occupying a midway position between the powerful economy of South Africa and the potentially strong economies of the Democratic Republic of Congo and Angola may prove to be a strategic and pivotal position in the long run.

• Bulawayo’s strong communication and cultural linkage to South Africa is becoming a major advantage now that the apartheid era is over

• Bulawayo lies at the hub of a national and regional rail network

• Bulawayo lacks good air links to other countries and to most centres in Zimbabwe, other than Harare.

• Bulawayo, as Zimbabwe’s second city exerts a strong influence over the western region of the country , with no challenge to that position

• Bulawayo’s main hinterland consists of the dry and relatively underdeveloped provinces of Matabeleland North and South and significant parts of the Midlands province. Creating development in this region will assist the city to grow and create jobs.

• Bulawayo functions as an important marketing and distribution centre for the primary produce of its region.

• The immediate peri-urban area of Bulawayo is closely tied to the city in terms of social and economic factors but is administered by five separate Rural District Councils and the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Management

5.0. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND TO UA IN

BULAWAYO Urban Agriculture in Bulawayo just like in other towns and cities in Zimbabwe and elsewhere in Africa is as old as the city itself, especially the cultivation of staple food such as maize.It is said that in 1893 Patrick Fletcher a land surveyor designed and pegged the nucleus of the present city choosing a site for a large market square. Also a nearby veld had been conveniently cleared for a mealie field. (Bulawayo City Council 1994) and this clearly indicates the importance of urban agriculture from the earliest times of the city. Land reservations were made for European suburbs and an African location

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including17600 acres commonage land around the town. This land was turned into grazing land for horses and cattle, horses being used mainly for transport and cattle provided the much needed meat and milk by the early settlers. The town was declared a township in June 1894 and municipality in 1897.

Old plans of the city and title deeds of properties in some of the old suburbs make reference to urban agriculture and examples include: a. General Plan of Bulawayo Townlands and Surrounding Suburbs approved

on19th June 1929 indicates amongst other land uses a commonage and grazing area as well as a large municipal farm

b. The Bulawayo Outline Plan approved in 1960 also indicates a Municipal Farm situated where the present high-density residential areas of Matshobana, Mpopoma, Njube and Lobengula, are located.

c. In the north, Trenance Town Planning Scheme (amendment 1975) Agriculture in residential zones is permitted through Special Consent of Council.

d. Title Deed of Remainder of Lot 3 of Lot 3A Riverside (1958) states “The said lot shall be used solely for residential and agricultural purposes”.

e. In the Conditions of establishment of Burnside Township 5: Part II Condition 4 (b) states that no cattle, sheep, goats, swine or horses shall be kept except with consent of the town planning responsible authority.

It should be noted that the above examples make no reference to crops. It appears that backyard gardening was freely permitted.

It is surprising to note that despite this apparent positive historical attitude towards urban agriculture it has been trivialized over many years and not formally recognized as a legitimate land use and economic activity. It has either been neglected by the local authorities or treated with hostility in some cases where it has been considered illegal and affecting the environment adversely. It has been common in previous years for Zimbabwe urban local authorities to slash vast amounts of crops grown by the residents under the guise of protecting the environment and health of the people sometimes even during periods of food shortages. However, in recent years this attitude is fast changing and in some towns or cities like Bulawayo urban agriculture is getting positive recognition and attention.

?

5.1. Post Independence Plans The City’s Master and Local Plans as well as the detailed layout plans, each treats urban agriculture differently. The first city of Bulawayo Master Plan operative with effect from March 1983 does not directly refer to Urban Agriculture. But it makes firm proposals for residential /agricultural areas on the outskirts of Norwood, Riverside, Manningdale/Buena Vista, Hyde Park Estates. There is no zone specifically for agriculture. Local Plans for residential development permit urban agriculture through Special Consent and residential/agriculture zones e.g. Local Plan No. 14 – South Eastern Areas. In industrial areas urban agriculture is also permitted through Special Consent as

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stipulated in Local Plan No. 8 – Industrial Areas Development – except in special industry zone where UA is prohibited. The Bulawayo Master Plan 2000 – 2015 has a policy addressing Urban Agriculture namely:

Policy F2/5, which states: “The City Council shall support agricultural activity within

the Municipal area, subject to the following conditions:

a) Agricultural activities shall be permitted to small holders and plot owners, but applications for residential subdivisions will be encouraged where and when appropriate.

b) Specific areas of land will be allocated for the urban agriculture. Such areas will be decided upon through an agreement between the local residents and the City Council.

c) The Local Authority will permit other undeveloped areas to be temporarily used for urban agriculture until such time that the land is required for development. However, the Local Authority shall monitor the areas to ensure that the pegs are not removed. Urban agriculture on land close to the streams will not be permitted in an effort to prevent soil erosion and siltation of rivers.”

Layout plans for residential areas have hitherto not set aside areas specifically for urban agriculture. However, Council has entertained applications for urban agriculture on vacant land. All new layouts since 2005 now set aside areas for urban agriculture.

5.2. Other Background Features of Urban Agriculture in the City Urban agriculture in Bulawayo is practiced by people in different social and economic groups and for various purposes which include subsistence, economic, hobby, but most noteworthy is cultivation of crops by the poor sector of the population who form the majority of cultivators. Commercial urban agriculture is undertaken largely in authorized areas where dairy production, poultry, market gardening and horticulture is carried out. Council adopted an urban agriculture draft policy for the city in July 2000.

5.3. Some Current Urban Agriculture Practices Urban agriculture in the city is undertaken in various forms and these are briefly described below.

a) Designated /Zoned Areas

Residential/Agricultural Areas in plots mostly over 2 ha in extent are designated through the master and the local plans. These plots are largely in peri-urban areas of Douglasdale, Montgomery, Umguza Agricultural Lots and so forth. Also included here are low-density residential areas such as Burnside, Lochview, Trenance, Riverside and Richmond. Cropping is mostly dependent on rainwater as well as boreholes as this is a low rainfall area and to a lesser extent on irrigation. Shortage of water is one of the major problems.

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Produce include crops such as maize, vegetables, fruit, feeder crops; poultry, piggery, goats, sheep, dairy cows. The produce is marketed in the city especially at the wholesale markets which are in the central business district.

b) Special Consent Areas

Urban agriculture is also practiced in areas that require special consent. These are areas generally designated for other uses. However, urban agriculture is permitted in such areas after consent has been granted by the municipality. Such areas are in the low-density residential areas where poultry and market gardening are largely practiced. Permits to practice urban agriculture are granted by the Council with Special Conditions. Size of the plot, health and environmental conditions are normally the major considerations in granting these permits. Under normal conditions, residents are allowed to keep 25 chickens on their plots without the need for a permit. Numbers above 25 require the consent of council and neighbours. The council is supposed to follow up and monitor whether those granted the special consent are abiding by the conditions of their permits. However, due to various reasons, there has not been any monitoring.

c) Council Farms

Council has two productive farms within its boundaries namely Aisleby and Good Hope. Aisleby Farm covers an area of 1286 hectares and lies to the north of the city where Aisleby sewerage Works are situated. The treated effluent from the works is used for irrigating the farm pastures, which are divided into a number of paddocks. A successful livestock production project is run by Ingwebu Breweries, which is a commercial wing of the City Council. For example in 2004 the year opened with 1 996 cattle. At the end of December there were 1 813 beef cattle, with 320 births during the year, 84 deaths and 509 cattle sold that year. Causes of the high mortality are thought to be the high contact of metallic chemicals from industry which discharge into the municipal sewers feeding the works. There is also an experimental sheep project which started in 2004 with 20 sheep. Goodhope Farm is adjacent to Aisleby. In 2004 it had 86 hectares of maize which yielded 257 tones or 3 tones per ha. 91 hectares of wheat were planted and yielded 328 .4 tones or 3.6 tones per ha. These yields were considered low and attributed to imbalances in nutrients as a result of shortages of farming inputs. Some Council Farms are leased out for grazing for example Remainder of Umganin.

d) Garden Allotments

Over many years the City Council has set aside areas for garden allotments in the high-density low income areas. These have been established in selected areas especially areas with relatively fertile soils on vleis and along rivers courses. There are 12 garden allotments scattered throughout these low cost residential areas and examples are West Park near Mzilikazi and Makokoba, St. Columbus in Makokoba, Mabutweni, Mpopoma and Njube. These garden allotments were created particularly for the underprivileged groups such as the elderly, destitute, the poorest and widows. Beneficiaries were selected by case study

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social workers in the department of Housing and Community Services and the major objective of this urban agriculture programme is to alleviate urban poverty and improve the nutritional state of the poor. At present there are over 1 000 plot-holders and the size of each plot averages 130m2. The size of each garden allotment area ranges from 0.42 to 4 hectares. Crops grown are mainly vegetables and the most common is chomoulier and farmers say they prefer it because it is perennial, grows quickly and even when stolen by thieves, regeneration is fast and there is a ready market for it. The popular variety is grown from shoots and does not need seed. However, the quality of the crops and productivity everywhere appears poor mainly because of continued use of soil without use of the fertilizer or manure. Council previously used to provide technical assistance to those farmers through extension officers but this has declined due to financial problems. Most of the garden allotments use reclaimed wastewater from the sewerage works although this is erratic during times of water shortage in the city.

Garden Allotment Production

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Grinding mill next to garden allotment

e) Gum Plantation

This is an urban agriculture project initiated and supported by the City Council. It is located north west of the city and measures 350 acres in extent. There are 1100 plots of 5000m2 each the project uses waste water from Cowdray Park Sewage Ponds, Magwegwe Sewage Works and Luveve – 4 500 to 5000 cubic metres per day are used by individual plot holders and 4 co-operatives (5ha). Allocation of plots is done per ward by councilors. Productivity is reasonably high, much better than in the garden allotments. Crops grown are mainly chomolier, 40 kg per month per plot holder, green mealies, + 5000 cobs per year per plot holder is produced and with regards to sugar beans 25kg per plot is realized on average. There is a potential agro-forestry that is bee keeping.

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Vegetable production at the gum plantation

f) Khami School Leavers and Co-operatives

Khami School Leavers Training Center is located near the Southern Areas Treatment Works (SAST). This is also an initiative of the Bulawayo City Council for training youth and co-operatives. The center offers general agriculture training, practice and theory in both livestock and agronomy. In the livestock section there are 25 beef cattle, 2 to 3 of which are sold annually and another 2 slaughtered annually. A piggery project is planned. So far 15 ha are being utilized in this location.

g) Unauthorised Urban Agricultural Activity

This is the most prevalent form of urban agriculture in the city although it is seasonal occurring mostly during the rainy season. Maize is the predominant crop although other crops like sweet potatoes, melons, pumpkins, beans are also grown. Cultivation takes place almost everywhere and during the rainy season maize fields become so much part of the city’s landscape that it is often even unnoticed as one moves around the city. It is done around the house, in open spaces, along road sides, or vleis, water courses and stream banks, on hill slopes, on old rubbish dumps, along servitudes for electricity, water wand sewers. A lot of urban farming is carried out on land that was planned, surveyed and even serviced, awaiting development in some cases. The majority of these farmers belong to the low-income groups who grow crops on a part time basis for subsistence and improving food security and income levels. Usually the whole family is involved in maize cultivation although women appear to take a leading part. The size of the maize fields ranges from small patches measuring a few square metres to a number of hectares. According to these sizes the methods of cultivation also differ with smallest farmers using hoes whilst others use donkey drawn ploughs or hired

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tractors. During the farming season, villagers in the surrounding rural areas like Matopo come into Bulawayo with their donkeys and ploughs to hire them out to the urban farmers. There are no records on the fields and overall production of these unauthorized cultivations. But it is thought that the amount of staple food produced is substantial and there is need for research in this area. Inputs such as seed and fertilizer are readily available in the city’s outlets but issues of affordability, proper application and returns remain of great interest to research.

5.4. Benefits, Opportunities/Potentials Urban agriculture in Bulawayo is a very important economic activity that affects the lives of many people. Those engaged in it realize commercial benefits, or practise it for subsistence to supplement their meager incomes or simply for survival. Great amounts of food are produced in the various sub sectors of this activity as detailed above, but its actual contribution to the food provision and food security needs to be investigated further. For many families cultivated vegetables and crops within the residential properties and outside, provide the much-needed source of nutrition. Almost every home in the high-density suburbs has a thriving crop of traditional choumolier vegetable that forms an important part of every day relish and its significance in providing cheap nutrition to the family must not be underestimated. Self-grown sweet potatoes, melons and pumpkins as well as other crops contribute to a family’s balanced diet and health. Woodlots in urban areas provide firewood and timber. One of the greatest attributes of urban agriculture is its potential as a resource for urban poverty alleviation. Crops and livestock produced in this sector can generate incomes for the poor citizens and improve their standard of living, but there is need to rationalize the activity and make it more viable. At the moment urban agriculture provides informal employment for the housewives, the youth and unemployed in the unauthorized areas and formal employment in the smallholdings and special consent areas. There is great scope for enhancement of employment opportunities once the sector is fully recognized and assisted to develop further. In-fact urban agriculture can be considered to provide one of the best potentials, for employment creation under the present economic circumstances. A well-organized urban agriculture sector, that is productive and viable has great potential for spin off activities such as agro industries and established wholesale markets. The other benefit of urban agriculture is “greening” the city. Growing of trees, both ornamental and fruit, and general crops and vegetables enhances the aesthetic appearance of the environment. Especially in winter when natural growth of vegetation is reduced, irrigated crops provide the needed green which act as lungs of the city in cleaning up the polluted air.

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caldrey park

pumula south

mabutweni

Entumbane

new magwegwe

gwabalanda

Emakandeni

old lobengula

pelandaba

new lobengula

njube Mpopoma

Magwegwe North

magwegwe west

Luveve

lobengula west

Figure 1; Residential areas

The city has vast areas of vacant land that is not yet developed and has been set aside as public open spaces or servitudes for electricity, railway lines, telephone lines and roads. This land is easily accessible for urban agriculture and offers an opportunity for the planning for urban agriculture. Wastewater is used in the garden allotments, community parks, council farms, gum tree plantation, (urban agriculture pilot project) institutions and so forth. However, there is still great potential for exploitation of this important water source for urban agriculture by up-grading recycling of wastewater at the Southern Areas Treatment Works, Cowdray Park Ponds and Water Treatment Works. Advantage should be taken of well-organized community structures such as residents associations, burial societies, co-operatives women and youth groups amongst others to promote urban agriculture in the city. There is also expertise that can be tapped from agricultural training institutions in and around the city as well as government departments dealing in agriculture. NGOs such as World Vision and ORAP are also interested and active in supporting urban agriculture in the city. Market opportunities for urban agriculture are abundant in the city, citing the large fruit and vegetable wholesalers in the Central Business District, the GMB, milling companies and institutions such as hospitals and boarding schools. In so far as inputs are concerned, urban agriculture benefits from the existing suppliers in the city such as Impala Seeds, Farm and City Center and GMB which retail seed, fertilizer, pesticides, veterinary medicines as well as farming tools and implements.

6.0 RESULTS OF QUESTIONNAIRE AND FOCUS

GROUP DISCUSSIONS The discussions below focus on the results from a questionnaire survey to urban farmers and also focus group discussions with various groups of farmers in Bulawayo.

6.1 Demographic details The survey revealed that majority of respondents reside in the high-density areas of Bulawayo as shown in figure 1.

Of the respondents 25.4% were males while 74.6% were females of which 2.3% were not married, 53.8% were married, 33.8% were widowed. In terms of age the majority of the respondents were fairly old with the majority (55.1%) within the age category of 41 to 60 years (figure 2.) This reflects that the allocation of plots to use wastewater for

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Figure 3: Major source of livelihood inhouseho

urban agriculture informal employment formal employment

%

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Figure 2: Age category of respondents

61 to 80 41 to 60 21 to 40

%

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

urban agriculture was for the disadvantaged and the elderly since most relied on informal employment and urban agriculture (figure 3) and with the majority earning less than a million Zimbabwe dollars per month (figure4). It was noted that most of the respondents (64.6%) had gone as far as primary education while 20.8% reached secondary education.

6.2 Urban Agriculture The survey revealed that most respondents (78.5%) reported to know what is urban agriculture but on further probing it was found out that urban agriculture to them was growing maize, vegetables, sweet potatoes etc. Also the majority (96.6%) of respondents

felt that keeping chickens was not a form of urban agriculture. However more than 50% admitted that they engage in urban agriculture to supplement food and cash, with 94.9% admitting that Urban agriculture especially the use of wastewater has contributed significantly to their socio-economic lifestyles by assisting the farmers with food and money (99.1%), school fees (44.6%), medication (9.8%) and clothing (29.5%). The major

type of crops being grown included chomolia with are about 98.4% of the respondents growing it through out the year, beans (52.8%) being grown seasonally, maize with majority (83.2%) of the farmers growing it twice per year.

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Figure 4: Average income per month from urban agriculture

2million to 3million 1million to 2 milliion less than 1000 000

%

100

80

60

40

20

0

3.3%

3.3%

79.3%

14.0%

hobby

no alternative

food and cash

stay in town

Reasons for engaging in urban agriculture varied from to supplement food and cash to being a hobby as shown in figure 5.

In terms of areas were the respondents practices urban agriculture, majority (97.4%) admitted using authorized municipal spaces while 19% also admitted using unauthorized spaces. Backyards gardens seemed not to be popular however 31.3% were also practicing UA on them. On probing further it was found out that most (80%) of the respondents would have loved to have backyards gardens but the limiting factor was the availability of water.

Figure 5: reason for engaging in UA

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Figure 6: Reason for choosing wastewater

it has been treated no option

always available water fertile

%

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Figure 7: Reason for not choosing wastewater

fear of diseases want clean water

%

48.5

48.0

47.5

47.0

46.5

46.0

45.5

For those that practiced urban agriculture, 80.2% felt that their practice has no impact on the environment while 13.8% thought so and 6% did not know. As a general consensus 90% of the respondents strongly felt that urban agriculture should be planned for as a land use in the city. The residents pointed out that there was demand for their produce but the marketing strategy was not to their expectations. The majority (95.7%) of their produce was being sold straight from the plot whilst 2.6% sold their produce through hawking in the residential areas. However the respondents highlighted that their major problem in marketing was the issue of pricing (74.3%) whilst 20% reported the lack of a ready market as their problem.

6.3 Wastewater use for urban agriculture The survey revealed that most (62.2%) of the farmers have been using wastewater for more than six years and the majority (88.9%) are comfortable in using wastewater though it is the only source of water for irrigating. Those that preferred (61.8%) using wastewater, chose it because they acknowledged that the water is fertile and there would be no need to buy fertilisers while those who were not comfortable with wastewater (11.1%) preferred having another source of water supply which they can also use to drink and also grow a wide range of other crops that are not restricted.

In terms of the health risks associated with using wastewater, 69.6% were aware of the risks but could not enumerate the type of infections they might get. Knowledge on what types of crops to be grown using wastewater appeared to be high (73.6%) among the respondents. For those who were not using wastewater for irrigation felt uncomfortable (11.1%) both in using the wastewater as well as consuming (8.7%) products produced using wastewater. In terms of support from the local authority 61.6% felt there was support in the form of the land and water, which they were getting for free whilst the rest felt the local authority, is not doing enough to support them. From the policy makers and the local authority the

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24.8%

16.0%

16.9%

20.0%

22.2% improve with clean w

increase amount of w

need to be trained

need seeds and input

need more land

Figure 9: Suggestions to improve UA

issue of sustaining the service of supplying and pumping the wastewater was questionable as the local authority felt it was becoming a cost. However the policy makers felt it should be supported but being guided by policies and by-laws. On the issue of sustainability of the service by the local authority, the farmers were willing to pay (90.4%) for the services of supplying wastewater and maintenance of the system. The range of contributions ranged from ZW$5000 to $100 000 per month with most respondents (20.2%) prepared to pay between $16 000 and $30 000.

6.4 Problems encountered by the farmers During the interviews the respondents pointed problems there are facing in the utilisation of wastewater which included wastewater shortages (92.4%) and pests (21%). Apart from the problems the respondents suggested that if land is increased (22.2%), training (16.9%) and more wastewater (16%) is made available this would improve their production as well as their livelihoods and food security (fig 8,9).

7.0 KEY ISSUES FOR UA IN BULAWAYO Focus group discussions provided insights into some of the key issues for urban agriculture in Bulawayo. These are discussed below.

7.1. Environment (wastewater, health and pollution)

7.1.0. Water

Bulawayo is in a dry part of the country and water shortages are common. Council provided portable water is expensive to use for UA. At times the water is not even enough for domestic consumption, let alone for UA. As was discussed in the introductory part, water rationing is common and this calls for other measures to be taken to ensure

19.3%

23.3%

21.1%

22.7%

13.6% breakdown of pumps

thieves

animals

pests

wastewater shortages

Figure 8: Problems with wastewater

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that water is available for UA. Groundwater is available and deep but is receding. There is no information on quantities, quality and time series. For the waste water that is used for UA, there is no operations and maintenance of water facilities and this has resulted in continued deterioration of water facilities. Whilst people are willing to pay for the use of wastewater, this willingness is not homogeneous. There is a knowledge gap on water issues in terms of procedures, (ZINWA procedures, BCC procedures etc)

Opportunities include rainwater harvesting, drip irrigation and water conservation technologies. There are opportunities for conjunctive use of groundwater, wastewater and surface water.

7.1.2. Wastewater

There is no information on the quantities and quality of wastewater available. There is also substantial mixture of industrial and domestic wastewater resulting in pollution of the water with some heavy metals. Guidelines and information on wastewater use is not available (cropping patterns, types of crops etc). The management of wastewater for reuse purposes is also not clear, i.e. (cost of pumping, treatment and supply regime, downstream impacts etc). The use of raw wastewater was noted in some high density suburbs, though this is against council policy.

7.1.3. Environment

Deforestation in peri -urban areas is rampant. Sand mining in western areas for construction purposes is also threatening the environment and the areas that can potentially be used for cultivation. Veld fires are rampant. Waste dumping is also prevalent in open spaces. People in Bulawayo have built up a culture of tree planting around homesteads. There is the threat of lantana camara. Stream bank cultivation was also noted. Watercourses are polluted as evidenced by strong stenches noted. Monoculture is being practiced in most of the UA areas. People prefer leafy vegetables to other crops because of the short time it takes to grow these. There is need to introduce other varieties of crops and herbs. Evidence of soil salinisation was also noted in some of the areas used for UA.

7.1.4. Opportunities

Several opportunities exist for improving the environment in Bulawayo. These include introducing new forms of UA to improve soil quality and the introduction of organic farming and other related programmes. The list below gives an example of some of the activities that can be started.

• Bee keeping

• Herbal gardens

• Agro-forestry

• Urban forestry

• Waste recycling projects

• Environmental awareness

• Composting and use of animal manure

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7.2. Social Issues and Gender Focus groups highlighted the following issues with regard to gender and other social issues.

• There is pre-dominance of women in numbers but the decision making rests with men

• Conflict is latent but could negatively impact on the UA projects in the city if mechanisms are not put in place to resolve it. (Between different users, people and livestock, farmers and thieves, farmers and council livestock etc)

• The participants are skewed towards the old age and there is need to explore the impact on livelihoods of the old if a different group is targeted for the pilot project.

• The use of wastewater is perceived to be a social benefit and for this reason the existing farmers are not willing to contribute in cash towards maintenance of the system. There are other ways they could contribute e.g. by providing labour or remitting a percentage of their produce to council as their contribution towards maintenance of the system.

• Cultural norms and values have shaped people’s perceptions and behaviour, in one of the UA sites, the farmers are aware of the thieves within their community but are not willing to confront them because they fear being bewitched. This is just a pointer, which reflects the need to take into cognizance their norms and values when working with these communities.

• There is minimal improvement of livelihoods of the urban poor noted (status, income, education etc) through UA. There is need to explore how best the practice can be organized so as to make a visible impact on the farmers involved. It would be important to further explore the income generated and the people who have benefited in the past. It would not be accurate to say there have not benefited since we are not aware of what their lives were like before they started practicing urban agriculture.

• There are high levels of acceptance of wastewater reuse but there is need to explore whether this is as a result of scarcity or general appreciation of the resource. Other sources of water should be explored since the existing wastewater available is not enough to meet the demands of the users.

• Donor dependency is still prevalent and the issue of sustainability still needs to be explored further to end the dependency cycle

• Security of tenure is proving to be a threat and lowers the commitment and participation of communities

• Rudimentary associations exist but there is little knowledge about who is responsible for what.

7.3. Policy and Legal Issues The concept of Urban Agriculture is not entirely unknown in our legal system. The only difference is the terminology that has been used in the past and the difference with current terminology. The concept has also gained acceptance and recognition over the years and has thus attracted a lot of attention. The attention it has created has therefore called upon different stakeholders to look at UA from a different perspective. From a

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legal point of view, there has been need to look at the various legal provisions and their relationship to UA. There have also been calls to ensure that the law is revisited to ensure that its spirit unambiguously provides for issues related to UA. In the case f UA in Bulawayo, there are a number of policy and legal issues that have been identified as impacting UA. Some of the issues are clear but there is need for further investigation so as to establish any contradictions between legal and policy provisions and the activities that are taking place on the ground. The main one is the Bulawayo (Protection of Lands and Natural Resources) By-Laws of 1975. These by-laws regulate how residents in the urban or peri-urban area may practice urban agriculture. In any civilized society, people live by rules and regulations so that life can be orderly and as stress free as possible. In that regard, residents intending to practice agriculture in the urban area of Bulawayo are required to get permission from council first if they want to: a) keep bees b) livestock production c) poultry keeping

Council will then consider these applications and if the land is suitable or the applicant complies with certain requirements, permission will then be granted. Where poultry is concerned, a household may keep 20 chickens without applying for permission, but since poultry producers sell chicks in batches of 25 and its recommended that the number be increased to 25. These activities are regulated by the Bulawayo (Public Health) By-Laws SI 803/66. For the land cultivators, no one may cultivate municipal land without prior approval. So if agriculture which goes beyond her garden or yard, she will now have ventured onto council owned land. This will then be regulated by the Protection of lands and natural resources by-laws. Under these by-laws, residents are not allowed to cultivate within 30metres of the verges of any spring, marsh, swamp or banks of a public stream or any body of artificially conserved water. These regulations need to be kept up to date as with new scientific methods of cultivation are being developed, one may find that the regulations will be outdated. Recent scientific research has shown that not all stream bank cultivation causes soil erosion, bur certain crops can actually be grown and help to arrest soil degradation, e.g. planting bananas on stream banks. Another piece of legislation that has a bearing on urban agriculture is the Environmental Management Act. The purpose of this Act is to provide for the sustainable management of natural resources and protection of the environment amongst other things. Since the activities of urban agriculture have a bearing on natural resources and the environment, it is necessary that those who practice it take into account that natural resources and the environment should be protected and not polluted by their activities. It is necessary that

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people practicing urban agriculture are taught farming methods that do not harm the environment and natural resources.

7.3.1. Relevance of provisions

There is no systematic way of revising/ amending existing laws/by laws relating to UA in the city. Some of the regulations have been in place for over years without any revision and are therefore no longer in tandem with what is happening on the ground/ scientific research. An example is the 1975 Natural Resources (stream bank Protection) regulations. Whilst the regulations specifically/ outrightly prohibit cultivation within 30 metres of stream bank, regardless of the crop grown, scientific research has shown that not all crops can cause soil erosion if planted in the stream bank. If anything there are certain crops that can actually abate soil erosion if planted in the stream bank. However legally these crops can still not been grown on the stream banks because the regulations say otherwise. It will therefore be necessary to ensure constant periodic review of the bylaws so that new developments are incorporated.

7.3.2. Legal Persona of cooperatives

There is a lot of involvement by “cooperatives” in the practice of UA in Bulawayo. It has however not clear whether these cooperatives meet the necessary legal requirements to be called as such. It is not clear whether there are:

- registered

- have any governing documents e.g. constitutions, internal regulations etc

- any governing leadership structures and clearly defined roles for the leaders

- Operate on the basis of written agreements with important players in their business like local authority, suppliers etc or depend on good will.

This is the case especially with the school leavers cooperative. It is important for these cooperatives to have clear legal standing so that they can carry out their business effectively for example if they want to open a bank account (in whose name will the account be opened, who will be the signatories; who gives the mandate for carrying out of certain activities etc) or in the case of legal proceedings (who is sued and who can sue, on whose behalf). Without clearly defined legal standing, these issues can give rise to problems.

7.3..3. Security of Tenure

It is a fact that most of the land that is used by cooperatives and the less privileged members of the community in Bulawayo for UA is owned by the local authority. It is also a fact that most of the land is owned for other uses and not meant for UA. The land is only being used for UA whilst awaiting development for its planned land uses. Under the circumstances therefore, there is no security of tenure for the urban farmers and they depend on the goodwill of the authorities for them to continue with their farming activities. A legally binding agreement (e.g. lease) would give the necessary assurance and protect the farmers’ rights although this may give problems to council in the forum of the workload involved in giving leases to a many farmers who own very small pieces of land. These leases can also bring with them the issue of a rental fee which some of the

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farmers might not be willing to pay. Encouraging (forcing) them to form Associations which can then get leases from the local authorities on behalf of members

7.4. Economics, Nutrition, Food Security The various urban agriculture projects around Bulawayo revolve around several concepts. Some of them are social projects, e.g. the West Park garden allotments, while others are trying to be economic ventures e.g. the Westville Park Development Association. The Gum Plantation displays a mixture of both the economic and the social aspects. Those that started as social projects have slowly turned to economic production. Most of the vegetables produced at Westside are sold to nearby houses and markets. However, the problem of marketing will arise soon when production increases because most of the farmers are producing the same type of produce – leafy vegetables. This calls for the need to explore opportunities for processing the produce from the urban farmers. Nutrition: It was very difficult to judge nutrition levels from field visits without a proper survey. The closest proxy that was used for this was from the type of crops grown with the assumption that these crops are also for own consumption. The pattern of mono cropping of leafy vegetables gives an indication that the diet is largely made up of these vegetables. There is a bit of the production of citrus fruits and some beans in a few cases. The current choice of crops is influenced by security concerns. Indications are that with other types of crops like cabbages, beans and carrots, once thieves strike, the loss is total, whilst with the leafy vegetables that are dominant in the gardens presently, the loss is not total as the leaves shoot up again after a week. However, it is still necessary to investigate the best form of security which will result in improved crop diversification and ultimately nutrition. Issues of HIV/AIDS and urban agriculture have been at the fore of discussions with other bilateral and multi-lateral agencies. The monoculture practices currently being practiced have implications for the nutrition of the poor suffering from HIV/AIDS. There is need for more research into the implications of monoculture on this group of the urban poor. In terms of food security, it was noted that production is all year round in areas where council supplies treated wastewater. This is also the case in areas where there are boreholes e.g. Westville Park. This means that some basic foodstuff is available throughout the year. Again the main problem is the lack of variety in the food as a result of monoculture. Quantities produced are not known. It will be necessary to investigate the quantities of food produced by the urban farmers. One issue that seems to be apparent is the lack of processing of produce. In the event of over production, the excess goes to waste, as there are no processing facilities for the produce. It will therefore be important to investigate the possibility or potential for processing of the produce.

7.5. Urban Agriculture - The Planning Issues Today urban agriculture is considered as a land use that can be provided for in plans although not fully integrated into the system.

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Urban agriculture has not been included in the traditional land uses, hence no provision for it was made. Urban agriculture has been considered as insignificant and met with hostility hence it has not been fully integrated into Master, Local and Layout Plans. These plans are blue prints that guide the city’s future and present development plans. However, urban agriculture has the potential to help alleviate poverty and ensure sustainable livelihoods if fully integrated into all local authority plans. With that in mind it is thus important to integrate urban agriculture in all plans, from Master Plans down to Residential Layout Plans. Integration will facilitate and enhance agricultural production in the city. As a first step the city of Bulawayo undertook a study of all the areas on which the various forms of urban agriculture are undertaken. Most of the urban agriculture is unplanned and is not environmental friendly as people till any open space in close proximity. The Master Plan Review already recognized urban agriculture as a land use, and Local No 10 also makes provision for agriculture. It is Layout preparation that the exact urban agriculture sites will be designated.

7.5.1. Recent Policy Guidelines

The approved urban agriculture policy, updated by council on 7th July 2004, defines urban agriculture as

“a system of land use for agricultural purposes within the urban environment for crop and animal husbandry.”

The existing sites are in two categories and that is Garden allotments and land adjacent to effluent disposal sites as has been described above. Garden allotments include Makokoba, Mabutweni, Njube/Lobengula, Greenspan, Luveve, Nketa 6, and Renkini. Land adjacent effluent disposal sites include Luveve/Cowdray Park (Gumtree Plantation), Khami(SAST)/Dunstan farm an Aisleby Farms. The land adjacent effluent disposal sites utilise waste water for irrigation purposes. The GIS maps clearly depict these sites

7.5.2. Proposed UA Sites

There are sites that have a potential for urban agriculture and are proposed. These include Norwood Tracks, Hyde Park Re/Umganin, former Magwegwe Ponds, Khami River, Hyde Park Plantation, Portion of Reigate, Farms around Inyakuni and Ncema Dams.

7.5.3. UA and The Resettlement Programme

The City of Bulawayo through the Master Plan Review, has indicated that that land within a 40km radius will be required in the next 20-40 years for urban development and urban agriculture. Three categories or priority areas have been identified:

a) Priority 1

This consists of areas that have identified for incorporation in the boundary of the Greater Bulawayo. The farms in this category include Portion of Helenvale Block, Upper Nondwane, Montgomery, Douglasdale, Portion of Sauerdale(Criterion Waterworks) and Upper and Lower Rangemore. The list also includes farms in the northern areas encompassing Woodville, Umvutcha, Reigate, and the Airport which have been statutorily incorporated into the city. These farms are required for residential

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development within the next 5-10 years. It is thus in these areas where urban agriculture will be integrated into planning.

b) Priority 2

This category consists of farms abutting the boundary of the city and are required for medium term plans of the city that is 10- 20 years. On these farms 10 600, 15 hectare lots will be used for agriculture. some of he farms in this category are Umfasimete(2 663, 4985ha), Fundisi(2 475,4142), Imbesu(1 694,9318), Lower Nondwane(3 694,8746Ha), Upper Nondwane(1 649,2930Ha), Tabasinduna(4 434, 9812Ha), Sharona Park(993,0636), and Bobs Rest(87, 9375Ha). This will be peri-urban agriculture and will accommodate intensive agricultural activities such as horticulture and dairy farming.

c) Priority Area A

This consists of areas within 30-40km radius from the city and are considered to be long term priority areas that is beyond 20 year projections. Most farms in this category have been earmarked for the fast track land resettlement. In this category plot sizes will be determined by the Government.

7.6. Marketing Issues Facing Urban Farmers Some form of marketing takes place at the sites where UA is practiced. The farmers sell to individuals for home consumption and also to vendors who go on to resell at their market stalls or by the roadside. Some are keen to sell to supermarkets and processing firms but they are not sure how they can be linked up with these potential markets. Some of the farmers indicated that they occasionally sell their produce to people from Botswana. The production is characterized by glut periods and periods of shortage. Most of the farmers grow chomolier and little of tomatoes, legumes and root crops. There is very little diversity of crops. There is a sprinkling of fruit plants at some of the sites. However, some plots in the peri-urban areas have orchards but production is very low due to water shortage and poor management practices. The fruits are also sold to individuals at a very small scale. There is no thorough market research to inform the production patterns. Currently the farmers are producing only what they know best how to produce- chomolier. The monoculture also has a negative impact on the quality of vegetables produced. The farmers are not organized themselves into cohesive groups. As a result they do not take advantage of group organization to increase their bargaining power in buying inputs or trying to access other services. There is no value addition to the produce as they market it straight from the field. The farmers are however aware that they could dry some of the chomolier during the glut periods and sell during periods when water shortages inhibit production. The farmers based in the peri-urban agricultural plots are keen to access relevant technology to help them preserve the quality of vegetables during the drying process. Some farmers

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indicated that they would prefer to package the “mufushwa” (dried vegetables) themselves and enter into contracts with some retail outlets. There also possibilities of exporting the dried vegetables to Botswana and the United Kingdom if the farmers are well organised. Farmers in the plots (e.g. Woodville) are keen to enter into contracts with supermarkets and processing firms like Cairns Foods. Their problem is they work on a very individual basis and they cannot guarantee the quantity and quality requirements due to a number of factors that include poor production practices and water shortages.

7.6.1. Opportunities for Working with the farmers to improve marketing Several opportunities exist for working with UA farmers in the field of marketing. These include:

• Organizing the farmer groups into cohesive units to enable them to lobby and access various services.

• Facilitating access to market information so that they produce for the markets and meet the quality and quantity requirements of the markets.

• Improving Extension services to improve production techniques and improved production in terms of quality and quantity.

• Improving farmers’ access to credit.

• Training farmers to improve production practices and therefore enhance the quality of the produce.

• Organizing farmers to access inputs in groups and to take advantage of economies of scale.

• Facilitating access to processing equipment and ensuring value addition in the process, e.g. for drying the green vegetables and tomatoes.

• Promoting organic farming and identify appropriate overseas markets for the produce

7.6.2. Challenges to the Marketing potential The recent clean-up operation broke-up the established marketing channel. The future of vendors is very unclear. This has removed a very important market link for the urban farmers. It is also not very clear how far the operation will affect agricultural production in Bulawayo. There is general uncertainty that might affect the farmers’ motivation to invest time and resources towards increasing production. The farmers have no access to credit facilities and they find it hard to mobilise more resources to increase the level of production and improve the quality of the produce. Some of the farmers in the peri-urban areas have borehole facilities that have broken down due to poor maintenance and would need to access finance to rehabilitate the facilities. Most of the producers are in their old age and most lending institutions grade them as a high-risk group making it hard for them to access the credit facilities.

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The poor farmer organisation also affects their ability to mobilise resources for the processing and value addition to their produce.

7.6.3. Training/information needs for urban farmers: The following issues pertaining to training were identified by the urban farmers through focus group discussions:

• Formation and management of farmer groups/associations/cooperatives (leadership and organizational skills).

• Agri-business skills.

• Farm management, records management and financial management.

• Marketing strategies and opportunities.

• Crop and animal varieties (nutritious foods for home use, high-value/high-yielding crops/animals for sale).

• Food storage, processing and packaging,

• Appropriate farming systems and technologies.

• Water and soil conservation techniques.

• Policy advocacy and lobbying.

• Health and environmental hazards associated with urban agriculture. It is hoped that some of these issues will be taken on board by the training and capacity development courses that will be mounted for the city.

7.7. HIV and AIDS in Urban Agriculture

7.7.1. Impact of HIV and AIDS in Agriculture HIV and AIDS reduce labor resulting in crop reduction (AIDS related illness and death affects labor available for agriculture) AIDS related illness and deaths can lead to selling off assets and this impacts on productivity and future livelihoods Women headed households are vulnerable. Women provide the bulk of agricultural labor. Women are the ones to look after family member when they become sick with AIDS and related opportunistic infections. The women are thus faced with competing demands to maintain crop production, care for the family members suffering from AIDS and protect their own health. This will result with food shortage and hunger may result making it more difficult to maintain a healthy immune system for those who are HIV positive and also increasing the progression of the HIV.

7.7.2. Woodville Association (Women Vulnerability)

Association has over 30 members the bulk of them are widows and mostly women. What caused the deaths of spouses? How many orphans are there? What other groups are affected and infected? How many child headed families are in the community? What support systems are there for the HIV and AIS infected and affected? Possibilities are, widows are now more vulnerable to transactional sex. Their subordinate position to males can make it difficult to protect them or negotiate for implements to use in UA. Farming

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inputs may be expensive and women may pay for the inputs with their bodies. Market produce to the markets may be difficult without transport and use of truck drivers might put them at risk. They can supplement their agricultural income by resorting to the oldest profession (CSW). Urban agriculture for the widows might fail to improve the capacity of households to respond to the impact of HIV and AIDS on their lives and livelihood.

7.7.3. Woodville Orphans According to UNICEF the standard definition of orphan is a child under the age of 18 years who has lost one or both parents. In 1998 345 000 orphans were recorded in the country and the number rose to 1,14 million in 2003. Four out of every five orphans in the country have lost one or both parents due to AIDS. It therefore follows that the orphans in Woodville are likely to have lost the parent/parent due to HIV and AIDS.

8.0. STAKEHOLDER ANALYSIS There are several stakeholders for UA in the city of Bulawayo. These range from council departments, central government ministries, NGOs, CBOs, private sector to the education and research institutions. Some of these stakeholders have a direct stake whilst others have an indirect involvement in UA. Annex 1 lists about 46 stakeholders and the potential roles they can play in UA in Bulawayo. The various city council committees listed (Housing, Health and Education, Town Lands and Planning, Environmental Management and Engineering Services, and Local Agenda 21 Committees) and council departments are crucial in the development of a UA agenda for the city and the review of by-laws. The central government ministries will play a key role in ensuring that key aspects of UA like accessing land, water, other resources and the regulatory environment are a facilitatory. The NGOs will play a major part in making some of the resources available and capacity development for UA. CBOs can play a part in lobbying whilst the private sector will be critical in ensuring markets for UA products and making inputs available. The urban farmers themselves are major stakeholders as they will be directly affected by the actions of the other stakeholders listed above. Annex 1 details the various issues pertaining to: a. Who are the direct and indirect stakeholders b. The networks they belong to and other actors they are linked to c. Their potential role in UA d. Their type of activity and their degree of influence/power on the UA context e. Their interests and objectives related to UA f. Potentials and limitations identified for UA development

9.0. CONSTRAINTS AND PROBLEMS There seems to exist numerous constraints and problems that make development of the UA sector difficult. There are both physical and socio-economic constraints that affect urban agriculture. Some of these are summarized below:

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Physical Constraints

Constraints that are apparent are mainly those affecting the unauthorized cultivators of subsistence crops. Access to land for cultivation is a major problem as there is no land set aside specifically for this activity. In recent times the City Council has demarcated some areas for urban agriculture, albeit on a small scale. Otherwise people grab land wherever they can. It is not known how the communities allocate each other land, but no disputes have been brought forward to the local authority except complaints by residents in affluent suburbs on cultivations outside their homes and private owners of vacant land. Perhaps this is so because such cultivation is regarded as an illegal activity anyway. It is common to find unsuitable and unfertile land being cultivated such as slopes of hills, stream banks, old mine dumps, disused refuse disposal sites and road verges. This encourages environmental degradation through soil erosion and indiscriminate tree cutting and a risk of crop contamination in the refuse disposal areas where some toxic materials are sometimes dumped. Contamination of the crops also occurs during handling at harvest and transportation time and at the market. The soils in the cultivated areas are often poor resulting in the low yields. Often, in-fact almost always, no manure or fertilizers are used. Where there is development, the best soils are used for housing and other urban uses and marginal soils that are left are taken up for urban agriculture. There is no irrigation water for these urban cultivators, who largely depend on rainwater. During drought years, because their fields are small, they produce almost nothing. Socio-economic Constraints

Urban farmers working on small fields on Council owned land use poor methods of farming. There are hardly any fertilizer inputs and draught power is inadequate or unavailable. Fields are tilled with hoes which means that shallow depth does not encourage root growth and moisture retention. Sometimes donkey drawn ploughs are used. Since the soils are poor from the start, these are not assisted by addition of manure and fertilizers leading to fairly poor harvests. There are no credit facilities for urban farmers per se largely because this sector is not officially recognized. Credit for the purchase of input i.e. seed, pesticides, chemical fertilizers and equipment is mainly for rural farmers, but this could improve production for urban farmers. Extension services for informal cultivators are virtually nil. It is necessary that suitable personnel within the communities be identified for training in urban agriculture. There are institutions providing training for rural agriculture close to the city, such as Esikhoveni Training Center 40 kilometres east of Bulawayo and Hlekweni Rural Training Center south of the city. These institutions provide basic training in agriculture and cadres for urban agriculture in Bulawayo could be trained here. Matopo Research Station lies some 30 kilometres south of the city and this has great potential for assisting in training and research for the improvements of urban agriculture. Bulawayo City Council has a programme of training school leavers in urban agriculture at Khami and this could be expanded to include extension services. But the greatest potential for

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training in urban agriculture lies in the existing national institutions that produce extension workers for rural agriculture. These should be revamped to provide courses aimed at urban agricultural extension workers. For the cultivators themselves it is desirable that workshops are arranged where basic methods and principles of productive crop production, husbandry of small livestock are taught.

10.0. POLICY DEVELOPMENT PROCESS Council sent an official to Washington in July 1995 to attend a workshop on urban agriculture sponsored by EDI and in 1997 and interdepartmental committee on urban agriculture was formed to study Urban Agriculture in the city and make recommendations on how it could be promoted. Site visits, desk studies, unstructured interviews of farmers and mapping were undertaken. Workshops/seminars with Councilors were held on several occasions on the findings and a draft policy document was presented to Town lands Committee in June 2000 and adopted by Council in July 2000. It should be noted that this was mostly a Council (in house) prepared policy, with Councilors representing views of their wards.

10.1. Some Highlights of the Proposals and Policy Guidelines First the policy proposes that the City of Bulawayo formalizes recognition of urban agriculture as a legitimate land use and economic activity. All pieces of land where urban agriculture is practiced should be properly demarcated and registered.

10.1.2. Immediate/Short Term Proposals/Policies

These short-term proposals will encompass maize cultivation throughout the city, cultivation along urban streams/water courses, council farms within the city boundaries. With regards to unauthorised maize cultivation, the proposals for this activity envisage that all areas under cultivation or with a potential should be carefully examined. Layout Plans of these areas should be prepared and demarcations on the ground made. Average plot sizes need to be agreed upon, say 200 – 300 square metres. This is based on the existing average. In planned areas, cultivators could be allocated the surveyed and pegged stands and these urban farmers are responsible for the survey pegs which are usually removed and causing great loss to Council through the resultant need to re-survey. Seasonal leases shall be signed between Council and the cultivators and the policy of one plot per family adhered to. Council shall charge a nominal rental for the lease. Also the rentals are to be charged against the garden allotments for special groups. Council shall facilitate provision of extension services. A ward-by ward approach with leadership of Councilors needs to be adopted and the other stakeholders, that is farmers, need to be involved from the planning stage. A pilot project has been identified for demonstration purposes. Cultivation along vleis/streams

Urban streams possess some of the richest soils in the city. These need to be utilized to obtain maximum yield and some of the possible uses could include:

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� Growing of grasses that would protect soils against erosion, examples of such grasses are star grass, couch grass (cynodon nlemfensis)

� Other grasses that could be grown in these areas are Kikuyu grass (Pennisetum Clandestium) Rhodes grass, Napier, bana grass although these may need irrigation

� Promote haymaking and ensilaging where legumes and suitable grasses/cereals are grown.

� Encourage community participation in this sub-sector as it has great potential for supplying peri-urban farmers and those afar with livestock fodder during dry periods, etc

Stream Bank Cultivation

On the stream banks it is considered possible to develop agricultural project such as agro forestry, woodlots, sisal plantations, guava and other proliferous orchards. Community involvement is considered to be of critical importance in such a project.

10.1.3. Medium Term Proposals – 6 – 10 years

In the medium term the following projects/proposals could be considered: a) Utilization of railway reserved land and ZESA servitudes and consultations with the relevant authorities is necessary b) More intensive use of Council farms within the city such as Dunstan Farm, and

Remainder of Umganin by the community. Medium term projects can be started now and be planned/implemented in the next 5 to 10 years. Plant nurseries shall be developed throughout the city. Utilization of effluent disposal sites for irrigation shall be promoted

10.1.4. Long Term Projects/Proposals – Over 10 years These will address a number of areas/sections that do not necessarily need immediate attention and have long-range objectives such as:

� Council farms to be utilized for the benefit of the city’s inhabitants. � Development of livestock/beef production � Development of suitable stock production � Bee keeping � Fisheries

Details of the proposal will have to be worked out for each of the above categories since Council approves the adoption/formalization of urban agriculture in the city. It is emphasized that a participatory approach be adopted in the review of the existing UA Policy Guidelines. This will not only ensure that they take the concerns of all on board, but will also guarantee ownership by citizens.

11.0. CONCLUSION AND WAY FORWARD There is evidence that urban agriculture has potential to improve livelihoods and food security in the city. This has been demonstrated in the survey that urban agriculture improves income and livelihoods of the poor urban farmers. Thus in this context there is

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need therefore to organize urban agriculture so that the real impacts and benefits of urban agriculture be realized. As way forward the respondents suggested that there is need to address the following issues.

• More land allocated for urban agriculture to benefit many disadvantaged

• Need affordable inputs for the farmers

• There is need for training of farmers to improve urban agriculture

• Improve the amount of wastewater to farmers as well as reliability of the supply

• Need of clean water around the plots to avoid drinking contaminated water

11.1. Way Forward Urban agriculture is to be integrated into future land use plans. Council should go into partnerships with organisations such Municipal Development Partnership for East and Southern Africa (MDPESA). This will help in capacity building and ensure sustainable agriculture within the city. The existing policy on urban agriculture needs to be improved upon with the involvement of the Multi-stakeholder Forum. The policy should address amongst other things legal, gender and socio-political matter in greater depth. Research on various issues and problems affecting urban agriculture in the city will be encouraged. Urban agriculture in the city needs to be institutionalized by the creation of a section in the council’s organizational structure. The Multi-stakeholder Forum will have to lobby Council for this to be implemented sooner than later. Also integration of urban agriculture in councils system especially land use planning and budgeting is now going to be given top priority. One of the areas needing attention is the preparation of an urban agriculture development plan for the city and this has to be done within the next 12 months or so. This should be accompanied by preparation of action plans to ensure that provisions of the plans are implemented. Finally the partnership forged between Council and MDP-ESA/RUAF and other stakeholders will be maintained as one of the ways of ensuring sustainability and viability of urban agriculture in the city.

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Chimbari, M, J; Madyiwa, S; Mukaratirwa, S and Musesengwa, R. (2003). Pollution Implications of Disposing Wastewater on Pastureland. Final Project report. WARFSA Chivinge, O. and L. Machakaire, 2001 “Developments in Urban Agriculture in Harare” Paper presented at the Regional Stakeholder/Experts Meeting on Urban Agriculture in Southern Africa, 15-19 March 2001 University of Stellenbosch, Cape Town South Africa. City of Windhoek, (1996). Water Reclamation in Namibia. Windhoek Municipality. CSO(Central Statistical Office) (2002). Census 2002: Zimbabwe, Preliminary Report, Central Census Office, Government of Zimbabwe, Harare, Zimbabwe. DfID. (2003). Handbook for the assessment of catchment water demand and use. HR Wallingford, UK.

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ANNEX 1: STAKEHOLDER ANALYSIS FOR BULAWAYO

Stakeholder Direct/Indirect Network Type of activities Interest Potentials/Constraints Role in UA

Housing, Health and Education Committee

Direct Political/community/business

Policy approval, political will

Improvement of living standards of community

Poverty alleviation Enhancing nutrition and health sustenance of families and uplifting living standards

Political support

Town Lands and Planning Committee

Direct Political/community businesses

Policy approval, political will

Improvement of living standards of community

Limitations Lack of resources i.e. water, finance, farm inputs, lack of technical expertise, lack of designated land for UA, lack of political will

Political support

Environmental Management and Engineering Services Committee

Direct Political/community businesses

Policy approval, political will

Improvement of living standards of community

Lack of resources Political support

Local Agenda 21 Committee Direct Political , community businesses

Policy approval, political will

Improvement of living standards of community

Integrate UA in sustainable city development

Political support

Town Clerk Direct Political, community businesses

Policy approval, political will

Improvement of living standards of community

Potential to play lead role in UA

Administrative support

Engineering Services Direct Technical Policy formulation/implementation

Inclusion of UA in land use plans and budgetary process

Integrate UA into development planning

Administrative support

Health Services Direct Technical Policy formulation/implementation

Improvement of community /policy formulation

Review by-laws so that UA and related activities are not viewed negatively

Administrative support

Housing and Community Services

Direct Technical Policy formulation/implementation

Improvement of health/policy formulation

Facilitate availability of land for UA in low income areas.

Administrative support

City Treasurer Direct Financial/technical Policy formulation/implementation

Improvement of revenue base/policy formulation

Potential to include UA in city budget

Administrative support

Mayor Direct Political Political will Improvement of Spearhead policy UA Administrative

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community/policy formulation

review support

City Valuer Direct Financial/technical Political will Improvement of revenue base/policy formulation

Facilitate availability of land for UA

Administrative support

PA's Office Indirect Central government Policy formulation/implementation

General improvement of local living standards

Political support and making land available for UA

Government support

Department of Physical Planning

Direct Central government Policy formulation/implementation

Land use planning approval

Funding Technical support

AREX Direct Central government Policy formulation/implementation

Extension services

Funding and Number of personnel

Technical support

Ministry of Lands Direct Central government Policy formulation/implementation

Optimum utilization of land resource

Making land available in the peri-urban areas of the city.

Technical support

Ministry of Environment Indirect Central government Policy formulation/implementation

Protection of natural environment

Potential to produce environmental guidelines for sustainable UA

Technical support

Ministry of Water - ZINWA Indirect Central government Policy formulation/implementation

Utilization of water

Potential to make water available for UA but problem of resources

Technical support

Ministry of Health Indirect Central government Policy formulation/implementation

Health standards Can formulate health standards that are facilitatory to UA

Technical support

Natural resources Board Indirect Central government Policy formulation/implementation

Environmental conservation

As in Ministry of Environment

Technical support

Zimbabwe Open University Indirect Tertiary education Teaching and research

Production of agricultural experts

Develop curricula and carry out research on UA

Research and teaching

National University of Science and Technology

Indirect Tertiary education Teaching and research

Production of agricultural experts

“ “ “ Research and teaching

Bulawayo Residents Association (BURA)

Direct Residents association Community development

Self empowerment

Can play the role of lobbying but lack resources

Mobilizing residents

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Zimbabwe Farmers' Union (ZFU)

Direct Farmers organization Community development

Food production Lobbying for finance and other resources for urban farmers

Providing equipment/inputs

Zimbabwe Commercial Farmers' Union (ZCFU)

Direct Farmers organization Community development

Food production “ “ “ Providing equipment/inputs

Representative of Garden Allotments and Gum Plantation

Direct Farmers organization Community development

Food production/self development

Influence policy and use of land and resources

Beneficiaries already involved in poverty alleviation and practicing UA

Zimbabwe Council of Churches

Indirect cbo Community development

Poverty alleviation

Lobbying and provision of resources to UA farmers

Beneficiaries already involved in poverty alleviation and practicing UA

Bulawayo Shelter Direct cbo Community development

Poverty alleviation

Lack of resources a major constraint

Beneficiaries already involved in poverty alleviation and practicing UA

Umtunzi we Themba Direct cbo Community development

Poverty alleviation

“ “ “ Beneficiaries already involved in poverty alleviation and practicing UA

Representative from Youth Cooperatives

Direct Practitioners Community development

Food production/self development

Lobbying but lack resources to practice sustainable UA

Beneficiaries already involved in poverty alleviation and practicing AU

Representative from Fruit and Vegetable Markets

Indirect Consumers/manufacturers

Business Adding value to produce/consumption

Lobbying but lack resources

Marketing

Zimbabwe Republic Police indirect Legislation governing UA

Community development

Well being of community/reduction in illegal activities

Sometimes lack of understanding of city by-laws a major constraint

Law enforcement /conflict resolution

Zimbabwe Environmental Lawyers Association (ZELA)

Direct Law agencies Formulation of laws to protect environment

Environmental law

Potential to assist council in reviewing by-laws

Technical support

Institute of Water and Sanitation Development (IWSD)

Direct Provision, purification and conservation of water , research

Water treatment, conservation

Efficient use of water resources

Potential to research in waste water use in Bulawayo

Technical support

Environment Africa Direct Protection of environment

Sustainable agricultural practices

Promoting conservation techniques

Potential to advise on environmental issues.

Technical support

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ICRISAT Indirect Research on agriculture Appropriate cropping and use of fertilizers

Improving production

Potential to carry out research into various aspects of UA

Technical support

SNV Direct Deals with destitutes Capacity building Welfare of vulnerable

Mobilize communities and assist in capacity development

Technical/financial support

ORAP Indirect Deals with destitutes Food security Welfare of vulnerable

Mobilize resources for urban farmers

Technical support

World Vision Indirect Deals with destitutes Food security Welfare of vulnerable

“ “ “ Technical support

Seed Co Indirect Industry Seed and fertilizer production and distribution

Improved production

Potential to work with UA farmers and provide them with inputs

Seeds and fertilizer

Farm and City Indirect Industry Seed and fertilizer production and distribution

Improved production

Work with farmers to provide inputs

Seeds and fertilizer

SEDCO Indirect Agriculture finance Loans for inputs and machinery

Economic development

Make resources available

Financial support

Cairns Foods Indirect Food processing Provide market for produce

Adding value to produce from UA

Potential market for UA products

Consumers of produce and marketers

Irvin and Johnson Indirect Food processing Provide market for produce

Adding value to produce from AU

“ “ “ “ Consumers of produce and marketers

Hamara Indirect Food processing Provide market for produce

Adding value to produce from UA

“ “ “ “ Consumers of produce and marketers