B. Fazzinga, S.Flesca, F. Furfaro, F. Parisi DIMES – University of Calabria
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Transcript of B. Fazzinga, S.Flesca, F. Furfaro, F. Parisi DIMES – University of Calabria
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Cleaning trajectory data of RFID-monitored objectsthrough conditioning under integrity constraints
B. Fazzinga, S.Flesca, F. Furfaro, F. ParisiDIMES – University of Calabria
17th International Conference on Extending Database Technology (EDBT)Athens, Greece, March 24-28, 2014
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Scenario
The RFID technology is widely used to track moving objects (supply chain, people inside buildings, luggages in airports, etc.)
How RFID-based tracking works: tags and readers Tags can emit radio signals encoding identifying information; Readers detect the presence of tags thanks to their antennas LIMITATION: even if inside the detection range of an antenna, a tag
may not be detected (malfunctions, reflections, interferences)
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Scenario
The RFID technology is widely used to track moving objects (supply chain, people inside buildings, luggages in airports, etc.)
How RFID-based tracking works: tags and readers Tags can emit radio signals encoding identifying information; Readers detect the presence of tags thanks to their antennas LIMITATION: even if inside the detection range of an antenna, a tag
may not be detected (malfunctions, reflections, interferences)
r1r2
The tag may be detected by:
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Scenario
The RFID technology is widely used to track moving objects (supply chain, people inside buildings, luggages in airports, etc.)
How RFID-based tracking works: tags and readers Tags can emit radio signals encoding identifying information; Readers detect the presence of tags thanks to their antennas LIMITATION: even if inside the detection range of an antenna, a tag
may not be detected (malfunctions, reflections, interferences)
r1r2
The tag may be detected by:{r1, r2}
![Page 5: B. Fazzinga, S.Flesca, F. Furfaro, F. Parisi DIMES – University of Calabria](https://reader038.fdocuments.us/reader038/viewer/2022110210/56812d0a550346895d91dec9/html5/thumbnails/5.jpg)
Scenario
The RFID technology is widely used to track moving objects (supply chain, people inside buildings, luggages in airports, etc.)
How RFID-based tracking works: tags and readers Tags can emit radio signals encoding identifying information; Readers detect the presence of tags thanks to their antennas LIMITATION: even if inside the detection range of an antenna, a tag
may not be detected (malfunctions, reflections, interferences)
r1r2
The tag may be detected by:{r1, r2}{r1}
![Page 6: B. Fazzinga, S.Flesca, F. Furfaro, F. Parisi DIMES – University of Calabria](https://reader038.fdocuments.us/reader038/viewer/2022110210/56812d0a550346895d91dec9/html5/thumbnails/6.jpg)
Scenario
The RFID technology is widely used to track moving objects (supply chain, people inside buildings, luggages in airports, etc.)
How RFID-based tracking works: tags and readers Tags can emit radio signals encoding identifying information; Readers detect the presence of tags thanks to their antennas LIMITATION: even if inside the detection range of an antenna, a tag
may not be detected (malfunctions, reflections, interferences)
r1r2
The tag may be detected by:{r1, r2}{r1}{r2}
![Page 7: B. Fazzinga, S.Flesca, F. Furfaro, F. Parisi DIMES – University of Calabria](https://reader038.fdocuments.us/reader038/viewer/2022110210/56812d0a550346895d91dec9/html5/thumbnails/7.jpg)
Scenario
The RFID technology is widely used to track moving objects (supply chain, people inside buildings, luggages in airports, etc.)
How RFID-based tracking works: tags and readers Tags can emit radio signals encoding identifying information; Readers detect the presence of tags thanks to their antennas LIMITATION: even if inside the detection range of an antenna, a tag
may not be detected (malfunctions, reflections, interferences)
r1r2
The tag may be detected by:{r1, r2}{r1}{r2}
![Page 8: B. Fazzinga, S.Flesca, F. Furfaro, F. Parisi DIMES – University of Calabria](https://reader038.fdocuments.us/reader038/viewer/2022110210/56812d0a550346895d91dec9/html5/thumbnails/8.jpg)
Interpreting the readings
For each tag, the result of the tracking task is a sequence of readings R1,…,RT
Each Ri is the set of readers that
detected the tag at time point i
Time point
Set of reader
s
1{r1, r2}
2{r1, r2}
3 {r3}
4{r3, r4}
5 {r1}
6{r1, r2}
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Interpreting the readings
For each tag, the result of the tracking task is a sequence of readings R1,…,RT
Each Ri is the set of readers that
detected the tag at time point i
The collected data must be translated into sequences of positions (i.e., TRAJECTORIES) Positions of interest can be room names,
cells over a grid, etc.
Time point
Set of reader
s
1{r1, r2}
2{r1, r2}
3 {r3}
4{r3, r4}
5 {r1}
6{r1, r2}
Position
Corridor
Corridor
Coffee room
Coffee room
Corridor
Corridor
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From sequences of readings to trajectories
Issues to deal with
L0
L1
L2
L4
L3
r1
r5r0
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From sequences of readings to trajectories
No one-to-one correspondence between readers and locations readers can cover portions of different
locations; Some zones may be covered by no
reader
Issues to deal with
L0
L1
L2
L4
L3
r1
r5r0
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From sequences of readings to trajectories
No one-to-one correspondence between readers and locations readers can cover portions of different
locations; Some zones may be covered by no
reader
Issues to deal with
L0
L1
L2
L4
L3
r1
r5r0
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L0
L1
L2
L4
L3
r1
r5r0
No one-to-one correspondence between readers and locations readers can cover portions of different
locations; Some zones may be covered by no
reader
Issues to deal with
From sequences of readings to trajectories
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r1
r5r0
L0
L1
L2
L4
L3 No one-to-one correspondence
between readers and locations readers can cover portions of different
locations; Some zones may be covered by no
reader
Issues to deal with
From sequences of readings to trajectories
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L0
L1
L2
L4
L3
r1
r5r0
No one-to-one correspondence between readers and locations readers can cover portions of different
locations; Some zones may be covered by no
reader
Issues to deal with
From sequences of readings to trajectories
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L0
L1
L2
L4
L3
r1
r5r0
No one-to-one correspondence between readers and locations readers can cover portions of different
locations; Some zones may be covered by no
reader
Issues to deal with
False negatives a tag may not be detected even if in the
range of an antenna
From sequences of readings to trajectories
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L0
L1
L2
L4
L3
r1
r5r0
No one-to-one correspondence between readers and locations readers can cover portions of different
locations; Some zones may be covered by no
reader
Issues to deal with
False negatives a tag may not be detected even if in the
range of an antenna
An object detected by a set of readers can be in different
locations
An undetected object can be anywhere!
From sequences of readings to trajectories
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L0
L1
L2
L4
L3
r1
r5r0
No one-to-one correspondence between readers and locations readers can cover portions of different
locations; Some zones may be covered by no
reader
Issues to deal with
False negatives a tag may not be detected even if in the
range of an antenna
A sequence of detections can be generated by different
trajectories: which is the actual one?
From sequences of readings to trajectories
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r1
r5r0
Time 1 2 3
Set of readers
{r1, r5} {r1, r5} {r0}
Table of detections
L0
L1
L2
L4
L3
A naive probabilistic interpretation of the readings
Consider the time points separately (independence assumption)
Model the correspondence between locations and set of readers as a PDF pa(l|R)
pa(l|R) is easy to obtain from the position of readers and their physical model
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r1
r5r0
Table of detections
L0
L1
L2
L4
L3
A naive probabilistic interpretation of the readings
Time 1 2 3
Set of readers
{r1, r5} {r1, r5} {r0}
Locations & Probabilities
pa(L1|{r1,r5}) = 50%pa(L4|{r1,r5}) = 50%
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r1
r5r0
Table of detections
L0
L1
L2
L4
L3
A naive probabilistic interpretation of the readings
Time 1 2 3
Set of readers
{r1, r5} {r1, r5} {r0}
Locations & Probabilities
L1, 50%L4, 50%
pa(L1|{r1,r5}) = 50%pa(L4|{r1,r5}) = 50%
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r1
r5r0
Table of detections
L0
L1
L2
L4
L3
A naive probabilistic interpretation of the readings
Time 1 2 3
Set of readers
{r1, r5} {r1, r5} {r0}
Locations & Probabilities
L1, 50%L4, 50%
pa(L1|{r1,r5}) = 50%pa(L4|{r1,r5}) = 50%
The same as the previous time point:
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r1
r5r0
Table of detections
L0
L1
L2
L4
L3
A naive probabilistic interpretation of the readings
Time 1 2 3
Set of readers
{r1, r5} {r1, r5} {r0}
Locations & Probabilities
L1, 50%L4, 50%
L1, 50%L4, 50%
pa(L1|{r1,r5}) = 50%pa(L4|{r1,r5}) = 50%
The same as the previous time point:
![Page 24: B. Fazzinga, S.Flesca, F. Furfaro, F. Parisi DIMES – University of Calabria](https://reader038.fdocuments.us/reader038/viewer/2022110210/56812d0a550346895d91dec9/html5/thumbnails/24.jpg)
r1
r5r0
Table of detections
L0
L1
L2
L4
L3
A naive probabilistic interpretation of the readings
Time 1 2 3
Set of readers
{r1, r5} {r1, r5} {r0}
Locations & Probabilities
L1, 50%L4, 50%
L1, 50%L4, 50%
pa(L0|{r0}) = 100%
The detection range of r0 is entirely inside L0:
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r1
r5r0
Table of detections
L0
L1
L2
L4
L3
A naive probabilistic interpretation of the readings
Time 1 2 3
Set of readers
{r1, r5} {r1, r5} {r0}
Locations & Probabilities
L1, 50%L4, 50%
L1, 50%L4, 50%
L0, 100%
pa(L0|{r0}) = 100%
The detection range of r0 is entirely inside L0:
![Page 26: B. Fazzinga, S.Flesca, F. Furfaro, F. Parisi DIMES – University of Calabria](https://reader038.fdocuments.us/reader038/viewer/2022110210/56812d0a550346895d91dec9/html5/thumbnails/26.jpg)
r1
r5r0
Table of detections
L0
L1
L2
L4
L3
Probabilistic trajectories
Time 1 2 3
Set of readers
{r1, r5} {r1, r5} {r0}
Locations & Probabilities
L1, 50%L4, 50%
L1, 50%L4, 50%
L0, 100%
4 corresponding trajectories:
t1: L1–L1–L0
![Page 27: B. Fazzinga, S.Flesca, F. Furfaro, F. Parisi DIMES – University of Calabria](https://reader038.fdocuments.us/reader038/viewer/2022110210/56812d0a550346895d91dec9/html5/thumbnails/27.jpg)
r1
r5r0
Table of detections
L0
L1
L2
L4
L3
Probabilistic trajectories
Time 1 2 3
Set of readers
{r1, r5} {r1, r5} {r0}
Locations & Probabilities
L1, 50%L4, 50%
L1, 50%L4, 50%
L0, 100%
4 corresponding trajectories:
t1: L1–L1–L0 p=25%
p(t1)= pa(L1|{r1,r5}) × pa(L1|{r1,r5}) × pa(L0|{r0}) = 50% × 50% × 100 %= 25%
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r1
r5r0
Table of detections
L0
L1
L2
L4
L3
Probabilistic trajectories
Time 1 2 3
Set of readers
{r1, r5} {r1, r5} {r0}
Locations & Probabilities
L1, 50%L4, 50%
L1, 50%L4, 50%
L0, 100%
4 corresponding trajectories:
t1: L1–L1–L0 p=25%
t2: L1–L4–L0 p=25%
![Page 29: B. Fazzinga, S.Flesca, F. Furfaro, F. Parisi DIMES – University of Calabria](https://reader038.fdocuments.us/reader038/viewer/2022110210/56812d0a550346895d91dec9/html5/thumbnails/29.jpg)
r1
r5r0
Table of detections
L0
L1
L2
L4
L3
Probabilistic trajectories
Time 1 2 3
Set of readers
{r1, r5} {r1, r5} {r0}
Locations & Probabilities
L1, 50%L4, 50%
L1, 50%L4, 50%
L0, 100%
4 corresponding trajectories:
t1: L1–L1–L0 p=25%
t2: L1–L4–L0 p=25%
t3: L4–L1–L0 p=25%
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r1
r5r0
L0
L1
L2
L4
L3
Probabilistic trajectories
4 corresponding trajectories:
t1: L1–L1–L0 p=25%
t2: L1–L4–L0 p=25%
t3: L4–L1–L0 p=25%
t4: L4–L4–L0 p=25%
Table of detectionsTime 1 2 3
Set of readers
{r1, r5} {r1, r5} {r0}
Locations & Probabilities
L1, 50%L4, 50%
L1, 50%L4, 50%
L0, 100%
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r1
r5r0
L0
L1
L2
L4
L3
Probabilistic trajectories
4 corresponding trajectories:
t1: L1–L1–L0 p=25%
t2: L1–L4–L0 p=25%
t3: L4–L1–L0 p=25%
t4: L4–L4–L0 p=25%
… but some trajectories turn out to be impossible when looking at the map!
![Page 32: B. Fazzinga, S.Flesca, F. Furfaro, F. Parisi DIMES – University of Calabria](https://reader038.fdocuments.us/reader038/viewer/2022110210/56812d0a550346895d91dec9/html5/thumbnails/32.jpg)
r1
r5r0
L0
L1
L2
L4
L3
Probabilistic trajectories
4 corresponding trajectories:
t1: L1–L1–L0 p=25%
t2: L1–L4–L0 p=25%
t3: L4–L1–L0 p=25%
t4: L4–L4–L0 p=25%
… but some trajectories turn out to be impossible when looking at the map!
![Page 33: B. Fazzinga, S.Flesca, F. Furfaro, F. Parisi DIMES – University of Calabria](https://reader038.fdocuments.us/reader038/viewer/2022110210/56812d0a550346895d91dec9/html5/thumbnails/33.jpg)
r1
r5r0
L0
L1
L2
L4
L3
Probabilistic trajectories
4 corresponding trajectories:
t1: L1–L1–L0 p=25%
t2: L1–L4–L0 p=25%
t3: L4–L1–L0 p=25%
t4: L4–L4–L0 p=25%
… but some trajectories turn out to be impossible when looking at the map!
![Page 34: B. Fazzinga, S.Flesca, F. Furfaro, F. Parisi DIMES – University of Calabria](https://reader038.fdocuments.us/reader038/viewer/2022110210/56812d0a550346895d91dec9/html5/thumbnails/34.jpg)
r1
r5r0
L0
L1
L2
L4
L3
Probabilistic trajectories
4 corresponding trajectories:
t1: L1–L1–L0 p=25%
t2: L1–L4–L0 p=25%
t3: L4–L1–L0 p=25%
t4: L4–L4–L0 p=25%
… but some trajectories turn out to be impossible when looking at the map!
![Page 35: B. Fazzinga, S.Flesca, F. Furfaro, F. Parisi DIMES – University of Calabria](https://reader038.fdocuments.us/reader038/viewer/2022110210/56812d0a550346895d91dec9/html5/thumbnails/35.jpg)
r1
r5r0
L0
L1
L2
L4
L3
Probabilistic trajectories
t1: L1–L1–L0 p=25%
t2: L1–L4–L0 p=25%
t3: L4–L1–L0 p=25%
t4: L4–L4–L0 p=25%
Considering time points as independent (thus disregarding spatio-temporal correlations) yielded inadmissible interpretations:
1) Three trajectories must be discarded;2) The probabilities of the remaining ones must be revised
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Use integrity constraints!
The trajectory cleaning problem
Start from the probabilistic trajectories resulting from interpreting the readings by considering them independently
Discard the impossible trajectories
Revise the probabilities of the possible trajectories
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L0
L1
L2
L4
L3
Integrity constraints
DU (direct unreachability) DU(L’, L’’) means there is no direct
connection from L’ to L’’
Example:
DU(L0,
L4)
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L0
L1
L2
L4
L3
Integrity constraints
DU (direct unreachability) DU(L’, L’’) means there is no direct
connection from L’ to L’’
TT (traveling time) TT(L’,L’’, T) means that T is the min
number of time points needed to go from L’ to L’’
Example:
TT(L0, L4,
4)
![Page 39: B. Fazzinga, S.Flesca, F. Furfaro, F. Parisi DIMES – University of Calabria](https://reader038.fdocuments.us/reader038/viewer/2022110210/56812d0a550346895d91dec9/html5/thumbnails/39.jpg)
L0
L1
L2
L4
L3
Integrity constraints
DU (direct unreachability) DU(L’, L’’) means there is no direct
connection from L’ to L’’
TT (traveling time) TT(L’,L’’, T) means that T is the min
number of time points needed to go from L’ to L’’
Example:
TT(L0, L4,
4)
![Page 40: B. Fazzinga, S.Flesca, F. Furfaro, F. Parisi DIMES – University of Calabria](https://reader038.fdocuments.us/reader038/viewer/2022110210/56812d0a550346895d91dec9/html5/thumbnails/40.jpg)
L0
L1
L2
L4
L3
Integrity constraints
DU (direct unreachability) DU(L’, L’’) means there is no direct
connection from L’ to L’’
TT (traveling time) TT(L’,L’’, T) means that T is the min number
of time points needed to go from L’ to L’’
LT (latency) LT(L, T) means that T is the min number of
time points for which an object, once entered L, must stay at L
Example:
LT(L0, 3)
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L0
L1
L2
L4
L3
Integrity constraints
DU (direct unreachability) DU(L’, L’’) means there is no direct
connection from L’ to L’’
TT (traveling time) TT(L’,L’’, T) means that T is the min number
of time points needed to go from L’ to L’’
LT (latency) LT(L, T) means that T is the min number of
time points for which an object, once entered L, must stay at L
Example:
LT(L0, 3)
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Probabilisticconditioning
The trajectory cleaning problem
Start from the probabilistic trajectories resulting from interpreting the readings by considering them independently
Discard the impossible trajectories Use integrity constraints
Revise the probabilities of the possible trajectories
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Conditioning probabilities
Given a PDF p(X) and an event E, the conditioning problem is that of evaluating p(X|E)
In probabilistic DBs, conditioning is a way for enforcing integrity constraints over a DB where independence assumption is used In this case, E is the event that the constraints are satisfied
General framework for conditioning probabilistic DBs:
C. Koch, D. Olteanu: Conditioning probabilistic databases. PVLDB 1(1). 2008.
The general conditioning/confidence computation problem is NP-hard on succint representations
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L0
L1
L2
L4
L3
Conditioning probabilities
t1: L1–L1–L0 pa(t1)=25%
t2: L1–L4–L0 pa(t2)=25%
t3: L4–L1–L0 pa(t3)=25%
t4: L4–L4–L0 pa(t4)=25%
Example
Let IC be the set of DU constraints implied by the map
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L0
L1
L2
L4
L3
Conditioning probabilities
t1: L1–L1–L0 pa(t1)=25%
t2: L1–L4–L0 pa(t2)=25%
t3: L4–L1–L0 pa(t3)=25%
t4: L4–L4–L0 pa(t4)=25%
Example
Let IC be the set of DU constraints implied by the map
Three out of four trajectories are discarded
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L0
L1
L2
L4
L3
Conditioning probabilities
t1: L1–L1–L0 pa(t1)=25%
t2: L1–L4–L0 pa(t2)=25%
t3: L4–L1–L0 pa(t3)=25%
t4: L4–L4–L0 pa(t4)=25%
Example
Let IC be the set of DU constraints implied by the map
Three out of four trajectories are discarded
The a-priori probability of t1 is revised as p(t1)= pa(t1|IC)= 0.25/0.25=100%
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L0
L1
L4
L3
Conditioning probabilities
t1: L0–L1–L1 pa(t1)=50%
t2: L0–L1–L2 pa(t2)=25%
t3: L0–L1–L4 pa(t3)=25%
Example 2
Let IC be the set of DU and TT constraints, containing TT(L1, L4, 4)
L2
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L0
L1
L4
L3
Conditioning probabilities
t1: L0–L1–L1 pa(t1)=50%
t2: L0–L1–L2 pa(t2)=25%
t3: L0–L1–L4 pa(t3)=25%
Example 2
Let IC be the set of DU and TT constraints, containing TT(L1, L4, 4)
Trajectory t3 violates TT(L1, L4, 4)
L2
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L0
L1
L4
L3
Conditioning probabilities
t1: L0–L1–L1 pa(t1)=50%
t2: L0–L1–L2 pa(t2)=25%
t3: L0–L1–L4 pa(t3)=25%
Example 2
Let IC be the set of DU and TT constraints, containing TT(L1, L4, 4)
Trajectory t3 violates TT(L1, L4, 4) The a-priori probabilities of t1 and t2
are revised as: p(t1)= 0.5/(0.5+0.25)= 66.6%
p(t2)= 0.25/(0.5+0.25)=33.3%
L2
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L0
L1
L4
L3
Conditioning probabilities
t1: L0–L1–L1 pa(t1)=50%
t2: L0–L1–L2 pa(t2)=25%
t3: L0–L1–L4 pa(t3)=25%
Example 2
Let IC be the set of DU and TT constraints
Trajectory t3 violates TT(L1, L4, 4) The a-priori probabilities of t1 and t2
are revised as: p(t1)= 66.6%
p(t2)= 33.3%
L2
t1 is twice as probable as t2,
like before conditioning
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Naive cleaning algorithm
Generate all the possible trajectories compatible with the sequence of readings;
Discard the trajectories violating IC Compute, for each valid trajectory t, its a-priori probability Revise the probabilities of the trajectories satisfying IC
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Naive cleaning algorithm
Generate all the possible trajectories compatible with the sequence of readings;
Discard the trajectories violating IC Compute, for each valid trajectory t, its a-priori probability Revise the probabilities of the trajectories satisfying IC
INFEASIBLE!For instance:
Time interval length= 10min; Reading rate= 2s -1;
Trajectory duration: 2×60×10= 1200 time points;Avg number of locations compatible with each reading:
2NUMBER OF TRAJECTORIES: 21200= 1.7 ∙10361
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Our approach: CT-GRAPH
Conditioned Trajectory-GRAPH
Each node is a possible location at a time pointSource nodes are associated with the probability of representing the starting pointEach edge is a transition between two consecutive time pointsEdges are associated with the probability of the transition
L1 L1 L4 L4 L5
L2 L2 L4 L4
L5
0.6
0.4
1
1
1 1 1
1
1
1 0.2
0.8
=1 =2 =3 =4 =5
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Our approach: CT-GRAPH
Conditioned Trajectory-GRAPH
Each node is a possible location at a time pointSource nodes are associated with the probability of representing the starting pointEach edge is a transition between two consecutive time pointsEdges are associated with the probability of the transition
L1 L1 L4 L4 L5
L2 L2 L4 L4
L5
0.6
0.4
1
1
1 1 1
1
1
1 0.2
0.8
=1 =2 =3 =4 =5
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Our approach: CT-GRAPH
Conditioned Trajectory-GRAPH
Each node is a possible location at a time pointSource nodes are associated with the probability of representing the starting pointEach edge is a transition between two consecutive time pointsEdges are associated with the probability of the transition
L1 L1 L4 L4 L5
L2 L2 L4 L4
L5
0.6
0.4
1
1
1 1 1
1
1
1 0.2
0.8
=1 =2 =3 =4 =5
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Our approach: CT-GRAPH
Conditioned Trajectory-GRAPH
Each node is a possible location at a time pointSource nodes are associated with the probability of representing the starting pointEach edge is a transition between two consecutive time pointsEdges are associated with the probability of the transition
L1 L1 L4 L4 L5
L2 L2 L4 L4
L5
0.6
0.4
1
1
1 1 1
1
1
1 0.2
0.8
=1 =2 =3 =4 =5
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Our approach: CT-GRAPH
Conditioned Trajectory-GRAPH
Each node is a possible location at a time pointSource nodes are associated with the probability of representing the starting pointEach edge is a transition between two consecutive time pointsEdges are associated with the probability of the transition
One-to-one correspondence between
valid trajectories and source-to-destination
paths
L1 L1 L4 L4 L5
L2 L2 L4 L4
L5
0.6
0.4
1
1
1 1 1
1
1
1 0.2
0.8
=1 =2 =3 =4 =5
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Our approach: CT-GRAPH
Conditioned Trajectory-GRAPH
Each node is a possible location at a time pointSource nodes are associated with the probability of representing the starting pointEach edge is a transition between two consecutive time pointsEdges are associated with the probability of the transition
The revised probability of a trajectory is the
product of the probabilities along the
corresponding source-to-destionation
path0.4×
1×1×0.8×1= 0.32
L1 L1 L4 L4 L5
L2 L2 L4 L4
L5
0.6
0.4
1
1
1 1 1
1
1
1 0.2
0.8
=1 =2 =3 =4 =5
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Our approach: CT-GRAPH
Conditioned Trajectory-GRAPH
Each node is a possible location at a time pointSource nodes are associated with the probability of representing the starting pointEach edge is a transition between two consecutive time pointsEdges are associated with the probability of the transition
Can we obtain a CT-graph by just creating,
for each time point , a node for each location compatible with the
reading at ?
L1 L1 L4 L4 L5
L2 L2 L4 L4
L5
0.6
0.4
1
1
1 1 1
1
1
1 0.2
0.8
=1 =2 =3 =4 =5
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Our approach: CT-GRAPH
Conditioned Trajectory-GRAPH
Each node is a possible location at a time pointSource nodes are associated with the probability of representing the starting pointEach edge is a transition between two consecutive time pointsEdges are associated with the probability of the transition
At the same time point, different nodes may refer
to the same location…
L1 L1 L4 L4 L5
L2 L2 L4 L4
L5
0.6
0.4
1
1
1 1 1
1
1
1 0.2
0.8
=1 =2 =3 =4 =5
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Building a CT-graph: a 2-phase algorithm
Forward phase (progressively builds a graph proceeding from =1 to =T)
For each node n at time , create its successors at time +1 A successor is a node that represents a location compatible with R+1, and
that can prolong the trajectories ending at n without violating any constraint;Set the probabilities according to the a-priori PDFs
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Building a CT-graph: a 2-phase algorithm
The result is a graph where nodes represent locations that are compatible with the current reading and the «past».
Some nodes may have no successor!
Forward phase (progressively builds a graph proceeding from =1 to =T)
For each node n at time , create its successors at time +1 A successor is a node that represents a location compatible with R+1, and
that can prolong the trajectories ending at n without violating any constraint;Set the probabilities according to the a-priori PDFs
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Building a CT-graph: a 2-phase algorithm
Backward phaseIteratively remove nodes having no successors and their ingoing edges;Revise probabilities to take into account node removals.
The result is a graph where nodes represent locations that are compatible with the current reading and the «past».
Some nodes may have no successor!
Forward phase (progressively builds a graph proceeding from =1 to =T)
For each node n at time , create its successors at time +1 A successor is a node that represents a location compatible with R+1, and
that can prolong the trajectories ending at n without violating any constraint;Set the probabilities according to the a-priori PDFs
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Time 1 2 3
Readings {r1} {r2} {r3}
Locations L1, 6/10; L2, 4/10 L3, 1/3; L4, 2/3 L3, 2/3; L5, 1/3
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Constraints: DU(L2,L3), DU(L4,L5); LT(L4,2); TT(L1,L5,3)
Time 1 2 3
Readings {r1} {r2} {r3}
Locations L1, 6/10; L2, 4/10 L3, 1/3; L4, 2/3 L3, 2/3; L5, 1/3
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Constraints: DU(L2,L3), DU(L4,L5); LT(L4,2); TT(L1,L5,3)
Time 1 2 3
Readings {r1} {r2} {r3}
Locations L1, 6/10; L2, 4/10 L3, 1/3; L4, 2/3 L3, 2/3; L5, 1/3
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Constraints: DU(L2,L3), DU(L4,L5); LT(L4,2); TT(L1,L5,3)
Time 1 2 3
Readings {r1} {r2} {r3}
Locations L1, 6/10; L2, 4/10 L3, 1/3; L4, 2/3 L3, 2/3; L5, 1/3
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Constraints: DU(L2,L3), DU(L4,L5); LT(L4,2); TT(L1,L5,3)
Time 1 2 3
Readings {r1} {r2} {r3}
Locations L1, 6/10; L2, 4/10 L3, 1/3; L4, 2/3 L3, 2/3; L5, 1/3
FORWARD PHASE
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=1 =2 =3
Constraints: DU(L2,L3), DU(L4,L5); LT(L4,2); TT(L1,L5,3)
Time 1 2 3
Readings {r1} {r2} {r3}
Locations L1, 6/10; L2, 4/10 L3, 1/3; L4, 2/3 L3, 2/3; L5, 1/3
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=1 =2 =3
n1
L1
TL=
p=6/10
Time 1 2 3
Readings {r1} {r2} {r3}
LocationsL1, 6/10; L2,
4/10L3, 1/3; L4, 2/3 L3, 2/3; L5, 1/3
Constraints: DU(L2,L3), DU(L4,L5); LT(L4,2); TT(L1,L5,3)
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=1 =2 =3
n1
L1
TL=
p=6/10
Time 1 2 3
Readings {r1} {r2} {r3}
LocationsL1, 6/10; L2,
4/10L3, 1/3; L4, 2/3 L3, 2/3; L5, 1/3
Constraints: DU(L2,L3), DU(L4,L5); LT(L4,2); TT(L1,L5,3)
• is defined only for nodes over locations involved in latency constraints;
• It represents the duration of the current stay at the location of the node
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=1 =2 =3
n1
L1
TL=
p=6/10
Time 1 2 3
Readings {r1} {r2} {r3}
LocationsL1, 6/10; L2,
4/10L3, 1/3; L4, 2/3 L3, 2/3; L5, 1/3
Constraints: DU(L2,L3), DU(L4,L5); LT(L4,2); TT(L1,L5,3)
• TL is the list of the locations visited so far, each with the point of the last departure from it;
• Only locations involved in TT constraints are in TL
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=1 =2 =3
n1
L1
TL=
p=6/10
Time 1 2 3
Readings {r1} {r2} {r3}
LocationsL1, 6/10; L2,
4/10L3, 1/3; L4, 2/3 L3, 2/3; L5, 1/3
Constraints: DU(L2,L3), DU(L4,L5); LT(L4,2); TT(L1,L5,3)
n2
L2
TL=
p=4/10
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=1 =2 =3
n1
L1
TL=
p=6/10
Constraints: DU(L2,L3), DU(L4,L5); LT(L4,2); TT(L1,L5,3)
n2
L2
TL=
p=4/10
n3
L3
TL= <1,L1>1/3
Time 1 2 3
Readings {r1} {r2} {r3}
Locations L1, 6/10; L2, 4/10L3, 1/3; L4,
2/3L3, 2/3; L5, 1/3
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=1 =2 =3
n1
L1
TL=
p=6/10
Constraints: DU(L2,L3), DU(L4,L5); LT(L4,2); TT(L1,L5,3)
n2
L2
TL=
p=4/10
n3
L3
TL= <1,L1>1/3
Time 1 2 3
Readings {r1} {r2} {r3}
Locations L1, 6/10; L2, 4/10L3, 1/3; L4,
2/3L3, 2/3; L5, 1/3
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=1 =2 =3
n1
L1
TL=
p=6/10
Constraints: DU(L2,L3), DU(L4,L5); LT(L4,2); TT(L1,L5,3)
n2
L2
TL=
p=4/10
n3
L3
TL= <1,L1>
n4
L40
TL= <1,L1>
1/3
2/3
Time 1 2 3
Readings {r1} {r2} {r3}
Locations L1, 6/10; L2, 4/10L3, 1/3; L4,
2/3L3, 2/3; L5, 1/3
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=1 =2 =3
n1 loss=0
L1
TL=
p=6/10
Constraints: DU(L2,L3), DU(L4,L5); LT(L4,2); TT(L1,L5,3)
n2
L2
TL=
p=4/10
n3
L3
TL= <1,L1>
n4
L40
TL= <1,L1>
1/3
2/3
Time 1 2 3
Readings {r1} {r2} {r3}
Locations L1, 6/10; L2, 4/10L3, 1/3; L4,
2/3L3, 2/3; L5, 1/3
The loss of a node is the sum of the
probabilities of the candidate
successors which have not been materialized
![Page 78: B. Fazzinga, S.Flesca, F. Furfaro, F. Parisi DIMES – University of Calabria](https://reader038.fdocuments.us/reader038/viewer/2022110210/56812d0a550346895d91dec9/html5/thumbnails/78.jpg)
=1 =2 =3
n1 loss=0
L1
TL=
p=6/10
Constraints: DU(L2,L3), DU(L4,L5); LT(L4,2); TT(L1,L5,3)
n2
L2
TL=
p=4/10
n3
L3
TL= <1,L1>
n4
L40
TL= <1,L1>
n5
L3
TL=
1/3
2/3
1/3
Time 1 2 3
Readings {r1} {r2} {r3}
Locations L1, 6/10; L2, 4/10L3, 1/3; L4,
2/3L3, 2/3; L5, 1/3
Same location, but different
«history»
Different nodes
![Page 79: B. Fazzinga, S.Flesca, F. Furfaro, F. Parisi DIMES – University of Calabria](https://reader038.fdocuments.us/reader038/viewer/2022110210/56812d0a550346895d91dec9/html5/thumbnails/79.jpg)
=1 =2 =3
Constraints: DU(L2,L3), DU(L4,L5); LT(L4,2); TT(L1,L5,3)
n2
L2
TL=
p=4/10
n3
L3
TL= <1,L1>
n4
L40
TL= <1,L1>
n5
L3
TL=
1/3
2/3
1/3
Time 1 2 3
Readings {r1} {r2} {r3}
Locations L1, 6/10; L2, 4/10L3, 1/3; L4,
2/3L3, 2/3; L5, 1/3
n1 loss=0
L1
TL=
p=6/10
![Page 80: B. Fazzinga, S.Flesca, F. Furfaro, F. Parisi DIMES – University of Calabria](https://reader038.fdocuments.us/reader038/viewer/2022110210/56812d0a550346895d91dec9/html5/thumbnails/80.jpg)
=1 =2 =3
Constraints: DU(L2,L3), DU(L4,L5); LT(L4,2); TT(L1,L5,3)
n2
L2
TL=
p=4/10
n3
L3
TL= <1,L1>
n4
L40
TL= <1,L1>
n5
L40
TL=
1/3
2/3
2/3
Time 1 2 3
Readings {r1} {r2} {r3}
Locations L1, 6/10; L2, 4/10L3, 1/3; L4,
2/3L3, 2/3; L5, 1/3
Same location, but different
«history»
Different nodes
n1 loss=0
L1
TL=
p=6/10
![Page 81: B. Fazzinga, S.Flesca, F. Furfaro, F. Parisi DIMES – University of Calabria](https://reader038.fdocuments.us/reader038/viewer/2022110210/56812d0a550346895d91dec9/html5/thumbnails/81.jpg)
=1 =2 =3
n1 loss=0
L1
TL=
p=6/10
Constraints: DU(L2,L3), DU(L4,L5); LT(L4,2); TT(L1,L5,3)
n2 loss=1/3
L2
TL=
p=4/10
n3
L3
TL= <1,L1>
n4
L40
TL= <1,L1>
n5
L40
TL=
1/3
2/3
2/3
Time 1 2 3
Readings {r1} {r2} {r3}
Locations L1, 6/10; L2, 4/10L3, 1/3; L4,
2/3L3, 2/3; L5, 1/3
![Page 82: B. Fazzinga, S.Flesca, F. Furfaro, F. Parisi DIMES – University of Calabria](https://reader038.fdocuments.us/reader038/viewer/2022110210/56812d0a550346895d91dec9/html5/thumbnails/82.jpg)
=1 =2 =3
n1 loss=0
L1
TL=
p=6/10
Constraints: DU(L2,L3), DU(L4,L5); LT(L4,2); TT(L1,L5,3)
n2 loss=1/3
L2
TL=
p=4/10
n3
L3
TL= <1,L1>
n4
L40
TL= <1,L1>
n5
L40
TL=
1/3
2/3
2/3
Time 1 2 3
Readings {r1} {r2} {r3}
Locations L1, 6/10; L2, 4/10 L3, 1/3; L4, 2/3L3, 2/3; L5,
1/3
n6
L3
TL= <1,L1>
2/3
![Page 83: B. Fazzinga, S.Flesca, F. Furfaro, F. Parisi DIMES – University of Calabria](https://reader038.fdocuments.us/reader038/viewer/2022110210/56812d0a550346895d91dec9/html5/thumbnails/83.jpg)
=1 =2 =3
n1 loss=0
L1
TL=
p=6/10
Constraints: DU(L2,L3), DU(L4,L5); LT(L4,2); TT(L1,L5,3)
n2 loss=1/3
L2
TL=
p=4/10
n3
L3
TL= <1,L1>
n4
L40
TL= <1,L1>
n5
L40
TL=
1/3
2/3
2/3
Time 1 2 3
Readings {r1} {r2} {r3}
Locations L1, 6/10; L2, 4/10 L3, 1/3; L4, 2/3L3, 2/3; L5,
1/3
n6
L3
TL= <1,L1>
n7
L5
TL= <1,L1>
2/3
1/3
![Page 84: B. Fazzinga, S.Flesca, F. Furfaro, F. Parisi DIMES – University of Calabria](https://reader038.fdocuments.us/reader038/viewer/2022110210/56812d0a550346895d91dec9/html5/thumbnails/84.jpg)
=1 =2 =3
n1 loss=0
L1
TL=
p=6/10
Constraints: DU(L2,L3), DU(L4,L5); LT(L4,2); TT(L1,L5,3)
n2 loss=1/3
L2
TL=
p=4/10
n3
L3
TL= <1,L1>
n4
L40
TL= <1,L1>
n5
L40
TL=
1/3
2/3
2/3
Time 1 2 3
Readings {r1} {r2} {r3}
Locations L1, 6/10; L2, 4/10 L3, 1/3; L4, 2/3L3, 2/3; L5,
1/3
n6
L3
TL= <1,L1>
n7
L5
TL= <1,L1>
2/3
1/3
![Page 85: B. Fazzinga, S.Flesca, F. Furfaro, F. Parisi DIMES – University of Calabria](https://reader038.fdocuments.us/reader038/viewer/2022110210/56812d0a550346895d91dec9/html5/thumbnails/85.jpg)
=1 =2 =3
n1 loss=0
L1
TL=
p=6/10
Constraints: DU(L2,L3), DU(L4,L5); LT(L4,2); TT(L1,L5,3)
n2 loss=1/3
L2
TL=
p=4/10
n3 loss=1/3
L3
TL= <1,L1>n4
L40
TL= <1,L1>
n5
L40
TL=
1/3
2/3
2/3
Time 1 2 3
Readings {r1} {r2} {r3}
Locations L1, 6/10; L2, 4/10 L3, 1/3; L4, 2/3L3, 2/3; L5,
1/3
n6
L3
TL= <1,L1>
n7
L3
TL= <1,L1>
2/3
2/3
Same location, Same history
Same node!
![Page 86: B. Fazzinga, S.Flesca, F. Furfaro, F. Parisi DIMES – University of Calabria](https://reader038.fdocuments.us/reader038/viewer/2022110210/56812d0a550346895d91dec9/html5/thumbnails/86.jpg)
=1 =2 =3
n1 loss=0
L1
TL=
p=6/10
Constraints: DU(L2,L3), DU(L4,L5); LT(L4,2); TT(L1,L5,3)
n2 loss=1/3
L2
TL=
p=4/10
n3 loss=1/3
L3
TL= <1,L1>n4
L40
TL= <1,L1>
n5
L40
TL=
1/3
2/3
2/3
Time 1 2 3
Readings {r1} {r2} {r3}
Locations L1, 6/10; L2, 4/10 L3, 1/3; L4, 2/3L3, 2/3; L5,
1/3
n6
L3
TL= <1,L1>
2/3
2/3
![Page 87: B. Fazzinga, S.Flesca, F. Furfaro, F. Parisi DIMES – University of Calabria](https://reader038.fdocuments.us/reader038/viewer/2022110210/56812d0a550346895d91dec9/html5/thumbnails/87.jpg)
=1 =2 =3
n1 loss=0
L1
TL=
p=6/10
Constraints: DU(L2,L3), DU(L4,L5); LT(L4,2); TT(L1,L5,3)
n2 loss=1/3
L2
TL=
p=4/10
n3 loss=1/3
L3
TL= <1,L1>n4
L40
TL= <1,L1>
n5
L40
TL=
1/3
2/3
2/3
Time 1 2 3
Readings {r1} {r2} {r3}
Locations L1, 6/10; L2, 4/10 L3, 1/3; L4, 2/3L3, 2/3; L5,
1/3
n6
L3
TL= <1,L1>
2/3
And so on!
![Page 88: B. Fazzinga, S.Flesca, F. Furfaro, F. Parisi DIMES – University of Calabria](https://reader038.fdocuments.us/reader038/viewer/2022110210/56812d0a550346895d91dec9/html5/thumbnails/88.jpg)
=1 =2 =3
n1 loss=0
L1
TL=
p=6/10
Constraints: DU(L2,L3), DU(L4,L5); LT(L4,2); TT(L1,L5,3)
n2 loss=1/3
L2
TL=
p=4/10
n3 loss=1/3
L3
TL= <1,L1>n4 loss=1
L40
TL= <1,L1>
n5 loss=1
L40
TL=
1/3
2/3
2/3
Time 1 2 3
Readings {r1} {r2} {r3}
Locations L1, 6/10; L2, 4/10 L3, 1/3; L4, 2/3 L3, 2/3; L5, 1/3
n6
L3
TL= <1,L1>
2/3
![Page 89: B. Fazzinga, S.Flesca, F. Furfaro, F. Parisi DIMES – University of Calabria](https://reader038.fdocuments.us/reader038/viewer/2022110210/56812d0a550346895d91dec9/html5/thumbnails/89.jpg)
Constraints: DU(L2,L3), DU(L4,L5); LT(L4,2); TT(L1,L5,3)
Time 1 2 3
Readings {r1} {r2} {r3}
Locations L1, 6/10; L2, 4/10 L3, 1/3; L4, 2/3 L3, 2/3; L5, 1/3
BACKWARD PHASE
For each node with loss>0:Revise the probabilities of outgoing edges (if any);Revise the probabilities of ingoing edges (according to the loss);Propagate the loss to the preceding nodes.
![Page 90: B. Fazzinga, S.Flesca, F. Furfaro, F. Parisi DIMES – University of Calabria](https://reader038.fdocuments.us/reader038/viewer/2022110210/56812d0a550346895d91dec9/html5/thumbnails/90.jpg)
=1 =2 =3
n1 loss=0
L1
TL=
p=6/10
Constraints: DU(L2,L3), DU(L4,L5); LT(L4,2); TT(L1,L5,3)
n2 loss=1/3
L2
TL=
p=4/10
n3 loss=1/3
L3
TL= <1,L1>n4 loss=1
L40
TL= <1,L1>
n5 loss=1
L40
TL=
1/3
2/3
2/3
Time 1 2 3
Readings {r1} {r2} {r3}
Locations L1, 6/10; L2, 4/10 L3, 1/3; L4, 2/3 L3, 2/3; L5, 1/3
n6
L3
TL= <1,L1>
2/3
![Page 91: B. Fazzinga, S.Flesca, F. Furfaro, F. Parisi DIMES – University of Calabria](https://reader038.fdocuments.us/reader038/viewer/2022110210/56812d0a550346895d91dec9/html5/thumbnails/91.jpg)
=1 =2 =3
n1 loss=0
L1
TL=
p=6/10
Constraints: DU(L2,L3), DU(L4,L5); LT(L4,2); TT(L1,L5,3)
n2 loss=1
L2
TL=
p=4/10
n3 loss=1/3
L3
TL= <1,L1>n4 loss=1
L40
TL= <1,L1>
n5 loss=1
L40
TL=
1/3
2/3
2/3
Time 1 2 3
Readings {r1} {r2} {r3}
Locations L1, 6/10; L2, 4/10 L3, 1/3; L4, 2/3 L3, 2/3; L5, 1/3
n6
L3
TL= <1,L1>
2/3
![Page 92: B. Fazzinga, S.Flesca, F. Furfaro, F. Parisi DIMES – University of Calabria](https://reader038.fdocuments.us/reader038/viewer/2022110210/56812d0a550346895d91dec9/html5/thumbnails/92.jpg)
=1 =2 =3
n1 loss=0
L1
TL=
p=6/10
Constraints: DU(L2,L3), DU(L4,L5); LT(L4,2); TT(L1,L5,3)
n2 loss=1
L2
TL=
p=4/10
n3 loss=1/3
L3
TL= <1,L1>n4 loss=1
L40
TL= <1,L1>
1/3
2/3
Time 1 2 3
Readings {r1} {r2} {r3}
Locations L1, 6/10; L2, 4/10 L3, 1/3; L4, 2/3 L3, 2/3; L5, 1/3
n6
L3
TL= <1,L1>
2/3
![Page 93: B. Fazzinga, S.Flesca, F. Furfaro, F. Parisi DIMES – University of Calabria](https://reader038.fdocuments.us/reader038/viewer/2022110210/56812d0a550346895d91dec9/html5/thumbnails/93.jpg)
=1 =2 =3
n1 loss=2/3
L1
TL=
p=6/10
Constraints: DU(L2,L3), DU(L4,L5); LT(L4,2); TT(L1,L5,3)
n2 loss=1
L2
TL=
p=4/10
n3 loss=1/3
L3
TL= <1,L1>n4 loss=1
L40
TL= <1,L1>
1/3
2/3
Time 1 2 3
Readings {r1} {r2} {r3}
Locations L1, 6/10; L2, 4/10 L3, 1/3; L4, 2/3 L3, 2/3; L5, 1/3
n6
L3
TL= <1,L1>
2/3
![Page 94: B. Fazzinga, S.Flesca, F. Furfaro, F. Parisi DIMES – University of Calabria](https://reader038.fdocuments.us/reader038/viewer/2022110210/56812d0a550346895d91dec9/html5/thumbnails/94.jpg)
=1 =2 =3
n1 loss=2/3
L1
TL=
p=6/10
Constraints: DU(L2,L3), DU(L4,L5); LT(L4,2); TT(L1,L5,3)
n2 loss=1
L2
TL=
p=4/10
n3 loss=1/3
L3
TL= <1,L1>
1/3
Time 1 2 3
Readings {r1} {r2} {r3}
Locations L1, 6/10; L2, 4/10 L3, 1/3; L4, 2/3 L3, 2/3; L5, 1/3
n6
L3
TL= <1,L1>
2/3
New probability of the outgoing edge:
2/3=1
2/3
![Page 95: B. Fazzinga, S.Flesca, F. Furfaro, F. Parisi DIMES – University of Calabria](https://reader038.fdocuments.us/reader038/viewer/2022110210/56812d0a550346895d91dec9/html5/thumbnails/95.jpg)
=1 =2 =3
n1 loss=2/3
L1
TL=
p=6/10
Constraints: DU(L2,L3), DU(L4,L5); LT(L4,2); TT(L1,L5,3)
n2 loss=1
L2
TL=
p=4/10
n3 loss=1/3
L3
TL= <1,L1>
1/3
Time 1 2 3
Readings {r1} {r2} {r3}
Locations L1, 6/10; L2, 4/10 L3, 1/3; L4, 2/3 L3, 2/3; L5, 1/3
n6
L3
TL= <1,L1>
1
New probability of the outgoing edge:
2/3=1
2/3
![Page 96: B. Fazzinga, S.Flesca, F. Furfaro, F. Parisi DIMES – University of Calabria](https://reader038.fdocuments.us/reader038/viewer/2022110210/56812d0a550346895d91dec9/html5/thumbnails/96.jpg)
=1 =2 =3
n1 loss=2/3
L1
TL=
p=6/10
Constraints: DU(L2,L3), DU(L4,L5); LT(L4,2); TT(L1,L5,3)
n2 loss=1
L2
TL=
p=4/10
n3 loss=1/3
L3
TL= <1,L1>
1/3
Time 1 2 3
Readings {r1} {r2} {r3}
Locations L1, 6/10; L2, 4/10 L3, 1/3; L4, 2/3 L3, 2/3; L5, 1/3
n6
L3
TL= <1,L1>
1
New probability of the ingoing edge <n1,n3>:
Old × (1–n3.loss)= 1/3 × 2/3 = 2/9
![Page 97: B. Fazzinga, S.Flesca, F. Furfaro, F. Parisi DIMES – University of Calabria](https://reader038.fdocuments.us/reader038/viewer/2022110210/56812d0a550346895d91dec9/html5/thumbnails/97.jpg)
=1 =2 =3
n1 loss=2/3
L1
TL=
p=6/10
Constraints: DU(L2,L3), DU(L4,L5); LT(L4,2); TT(L1,L5,3)
n2 loss=1
L2
TL=
p=4/10
n3 loss=1/3
L3
TL= <1,L1>
2/9
Time 1 2 3
Readings {r1} {r2} {r3}
Locations L1, 6/10; L2, 4/10 L3, 1/3; L4, 2/3 L3, 2/3; L5, 1/3
n6
L3
TL= <1,L1>
1
New probability of the ingoing edge <n1,n3>:
Old × (1–n3.loss)= 1/3 × 2/3 = 2/9
![Page 98: B. Fazzinga, S.Flesca, F. Furfaro, F. Parisi DIMES – University of Calabria](https://reader038.fdocuments.us/reader038/viewer/2022110210/56812d0a550346895d91dec9/html5/thumbnails/98.jpg)
=1 =2 =3
n1 loss=2/3
L1
TL=
p=6/10
Constraints: DU(L2,L3), DU(L4,L5); LT(L4,2); TT(L1,L5,3)
n2 loss=1
L2
TL=
p=4/10
n3 loss=1/3
L3
TL= <1,L1>
2/9
Time 1 2 3
Readings {r1} {r2} {r3}
Locations L1, 6/10; L2, 4/10 L3, 1/3; L4, 2/3 L3, 2/3; L5, 1/3
n6
L3
TL= <1,L1>
1
New probability of the ingoing edge <n1,n3>:
Old × (1–n3.loss)= 1/3 × 2/3 = 2/9
New loss of the preceding node n1:
n1.loss= 1- 2/9 = 7/9
![Page 99: B. Fazzinga, S.Flesca, F. Furfaro, F. Parisi DIMES – University of Calabria](https://reader038.fdocuments.us/reader038/viewer/2022110210/56812d0a550346895d91dec9/html5/thumbnails/99.jpg)
=1 =2 =3
n1 loss=7/9
L1
TL=
p=6/10
Constraints: DU(L2,L3), DU(L4,L5); LT(L4,2); TT(L1,L5,3)
n2 loss=1
L2
TL=
p=4/10
n3 loss=1/3
L3
TL= <1,L1>
2/9
Time 1 2 3
Readings {r1} {r2} {r3}
Locations L1, 6/10; L2, 4/10 L3, 1/3; L4, 2/3 L3, 2/3; L5, 1/3
n6
L3
TL= <1,L1>
1
New probability of the ingoing edge <n1,n3>:
Old × (1–n3.loss)= 1/3 × 2/3 = 2/9
New loss of the preceding node n1:
n1.loss= 1- 2/9 = 7/9
![Page 100: B. Fazzinga, S.Flesca, F. Furfaro, F. Parisi DIMES – University of Calabria](https://reader038.fdocuments.us/reader038/viewer/2022110210/56812d0a550346895d91dec9/html5/thumbnails/100.jpg)
=1 =2 =3
n1 loss=7/9
L1
TL=
p=6/10
Constraints: DU(L2,L3), DU(L4,L5); LT(L4,2); TT(L1,L5,3)
n2 loss=1
L2
TL=
p=4/10
n3
L3
TL= <1,L1>2/9
Time 1 2 3
Readings {r1} {r2} {r3}
Locations L1, 6/10; L2, 4/10 L3, 1/3; L4, 2/3 L3, 2/3; L5, 1/3
n6
L3
TL= <1,L1>
1
![Page 101: B. Fazzinga, S.Flesca, F. Furfaro, F. Parisi DIMES – University of Calabria](https://reader038.fdocuments.us/reader038/viewer/2022110210/56812d0a550346895d91dec9/html5/thumbnails/101.jpg)
=1 =2 =3
n1 loss=7/9
L1
TL=
p=6/10
Constraints: DU(L2,L3), DU(L4,L5); LT(L4,2); TT(L1,L5,3)
n3
L3
TL= <1,L1>2/9
Time 1 2 3
Readings {r1} {r2} {r3}
Locations L1, 6/10; L2, 4/10 L3, 1/3; L4, 2/3 L3, 2/3; L5, 1/3
n6
L3
TL= <1,L1>
1
![Page 102: B. Fazzinga, S.Flesca, F. Furfaro, F. Parisi DIMES – University of Calabria](https://reader038.fdocuments.us/reader038/viewer/2022110210/56812d0a550346895d91dec9/html5/thumbnails/102.jpg)
=1 =2 =3
n1 loss=7/9
L1
TL=
p=6/10
Constraints: DU(L2,L3), DU(L4,L5); LT(L4,2); TT(L1,L5,3)
n3
L3
TL= <1,L1>1
Time 1 2 3
Readings {r1} {r2} {r3}
Locations L1, 6/10; L2, 4/10 L3, 1/3; L4, 2/3 L3, 2/3; L5, 1/3
n6
L3
TL= <1,L1>
1
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=1 =2 =3
n1 loss=7/9
L1
TL=
p=6/10
Constraints: DU(L2,L3), DU(L4,L5); LT(L4,2); TT(L1,L5,3)
n3
L3
TL= <1,L1>1
Time 1 2 3
Readings {r1} {r2} {r3}
Locations L1, 6/10; L2, 4/10 L3, 1/3; L4, 2/3 L3, 2/3; L5, 1/3
n6
L3
TL= <1,L1>
1
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=1 =2 =3
n1 loss=7/9
L1
TL=
p=1
Constraints: DU(L2,L3), DU(L4,L5); LT(L4,2); TT(L1,L5,3)
n3
L3
TL= <1,L1>1
Time 1 2 3
Readings {r1} {r2} {r3}
Locations L1, 6/10; L2, 4/10 L3, 1/3; L4, 2/3 L3, 2/3; L5, 1/3
n6
L3
TL= <1,L1>
1
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=1 =2 =3
n1
L1
TL=
p=1
Constraints: DU(L2,L3), DU(L4,L5); LT(L4,2); TT(L1,L5,3)
n3
L3
TL= <1,L1>1
Time 1 2 3
Readings {r1} {r2} {r3}
Locations L1, 6/10; L2, 4/10 L3, 1/3; L4, 2/3 L3, 2/3; L5, 1/3
n6
L3
TL= <1,L1>
1
7 out of 8 trajectories have been discarded!
The remanining trajectory has probability 1
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Experimental analysis
2 synthetic data sets Syn1: 4-floor building, each floor: 300m2, 11 locations; Syn2: 4-floor building, the size of each floor is twice that of Syn1;
L0
r1
L1 L2 L3
r0 r2 r3
r5r4r6
r11
r8r7
r9
r10
L4
L10
L5 L6 L7 L8 L9
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Experimental analysis
2 synthetic data sets Syn1: 4-floor building, each floor: 300m2, 11 locations; Syn2: 4-floor building, the size of each floor is twice that of Syn1;
Different trajectory lengths: 10min, 60min, 90min, 120min
Different detection ranges of antennas: 2.0m, 2.5m, 3.0m
Number of trajectories: 50 trajectories for each length and detection range
Integrity constraints: three sets DU, LT, TT, automatically generated (vmax=4m/s; minimum latency at each room: 2 sec)
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Experimental analysis
We our algorithm working in three different settings:
CTG(DU): only DU constraints are exploited;
CTG(DU+LT): DU and LT constraints are exploited;
CTG(DU+LT+TT): DU and LT and TT constraints are exploited.
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Cleaning times (SYN 1)
• Cleaning time is linear w.r.t. the trajectory length, independently from the constraints;
• Cleaning time gets larger as the set of constraints is enlarged (larger number of nodes over the same location at each time point)
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Cleaning times (SYN 1)
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Cleaning times (SYN 1)
• As the detection range of the antennas is increased, the number of missing detections decreases. This yields less uncertainty!
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Cleaning times (SYN 1 vs. SYN 2)
• Cleaning time is only marginally affected by the size of the map
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Effectiveness of the cleaning task
• The effectiveness was measured as the average accuracy of the answers of a workload of stay queries evaluated over the CT-Graph
• A stay query q is of the form: «Where was the object at time point t?»
• The accuracy of the answer of q evaluated over a ct-graph G is the overall probability assigned to nodes over location L at time t, where L is the actual location
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Effectiveness (SYN 1)
• The effectiveness is independent from the trajectory length• Considering also LT constraints improves the effectiveness compared with
DU only• Considering also TT constraints improves the effectiveness compared with
DU+LT
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Effectiveness (SYN 1)
• The greater the detection range, the higher the accuracy of the query answers, for every set of constraints
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Comparison with other cleaning techniques
Term of comparison: Metropolis Hastings sampler with constraints (MH-C)
Starting from a valid trajectory, other valid trajectories are generated by randomly perturbing each time point of the previous valid trajectory (only perturbations keeping the new trajectory still valid are accepted)
After a whole valid trajectory is generated, it is put in the sample set if its likelihood is a reasonable improvement of the previous trajectory
Our approach is compared with an MH-C sampler with the same storage space bound (the generation of samples is halted when the memory space occupied by the samples is equal to the size of the CT-Graph built by our algorithm)
H. Chen, W.-S. Ku, H. Wang, M.-T. Sun; Leveraging Spatio-temporal Redundancy for RFID Data Cleansing; SIGMOD 2010.
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Comparison with MH-C: efficiency
• MH-C is more efficient at every trajectory length
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Comparison with MH-C: efficiency
• MH-C is more efficient at every detection range
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Comparison with MH-C: effectiveness
• Our approach is more effective in cleaning the trajectories
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Future work
Use prospection to reduce the number of nodes over the same location
Reduce the size of the CT-graph Reduce the construction times
Try to exploit correlations among different tags (as in the supply chain scenario)
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Thank you!
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Integrity constraints
They all are easy to obtain:
Direct unreachability: they follow from the topology of the map
Traveling time: they follow from the maximum speed of the monitored objects and the distances between locations
in the indoor scenario: door-to-door distances, obstructed distances, etc.
Latency: they follow from the nature of a location, and from the importance given to short-length stays
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Obtaining pa(l|R) Construct a grid over the map (cells: 0.5m×0.5m)
Keep a tag for 30sec in each cell
For each cell c and reader r, the number of times the tag was detected by reader r is recorded into an array F[r,c]
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Computational complexity
The time complexity is O(n) (n is the number of time points)
The number of nodes built by the forward phase at each level is bounded by a constant, depending on the number of locations and the constraints The values of are in [0..maxLT] where maxLT is the maximum
duration among those specified in a latency constraint TL may contain at most one entry for each location; For a location L, only entries <x,L> are considered, where
x<maxTT (maxTT is the maximum duration specified in the TT constraints)
The backward phase performs a constant number of operations for each node.
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L1 L1 L4 L4 L5
L2 L2 L4 L4
L5
0.6
0.4
1
1
1 1 1
1
1
1 0.2
0.8
=1 =2 =3 =4 =5
Answering stay queries over a CT-Graph
Q: Where was the tag at time point =4?
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L1 L1 L4 L4 L5
L2 L2 L4 L4
L5
0.6
0.4
1
1
1 1 1
1
1
1 0.2
0.8
=1 =2 =3 =4 =5
Answering stay queries over a CT-Graph
Q: Where was the tag at time point =4?
Compute the probability of the stay represented by each node at t=4 (actually, this can be pre-computed for each node!);
p=0.6×1×1×1=0.6
p=0.4×1×1×0.2=0.08
p=0.4×1×1×0.8=0.32
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L1 L1 L4 L4 L5
L2 L2 L4 L4
L5
0.6
0.4
1
1
1 1 1
1
1
1 0.2
0.8
=1 =2 =3 =4 =5
Answering stay queries over a CT-Graph
Q: Where was the tag at time point =4?
Compute the probability of the stay represented by each node at t=4 (actually, this can be pre-computed for each node!);
Sum the probabilities associated to the same location: L40.6+0.08= 0.68;
p=0.6×1×1×1=0.6
p=0.4×1×1×0.2=0.08
p=0.4×1×1×0.8=0.32
+
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L1 L1 L4 L4 L5
L2 L2 L4 L4
L5
0.6
0.4
1
1
1 1 1
1
1
1 0.2
0.8
=1 =2 =3 =4 =5
Answering stay queries over a CT-Graph
Q: Where was the tag at time point =4?
Compute the probability of the stay represented by each node at t=4 (actually, this can be pre-computed for each node!);
Sum the probabilities associated to the same location: L40.6+0.08= 0.68; L5 0.32
p=0.6×1×1×1=0.6
p=0.4×1×1×0.2=0.08
p=0.4×1×1×0.8=0.32
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L1 L1 L4 L4 L5
L2 L2 L4 L4
L5
0.6
0.4
1
1
1 1 1
1
1
1 0.2
0.8
=1 =2 =3 =4 =5
Answering stay queries over a CT-Graph
Q: Where was the tag at time point =4?
Compute the probability of the stay represented by each node at t=4 (actually, this can be pre-computed for each node!);
Sum the probabilities associated to the same location: L40.6+0.08= 0.68; L5 0.32
Return the so obtained PDF: p(L4)= 68%; p(L5)=32%
p=0.6×1×1×1=0.6
p=0.4×1×1×0.2=0.08
p=0.4×1×1×0.8=0.32
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r1
r5r0
L0
L1
L2
L4
L3
Probabilistic trajectories
4 corresponding trajectories:
t1: L1–L1–L0 p=25%
t2: L1–L4–L0 p=25%
t3: L4–L1–L0 p=25%
t4: L4–L4–L0 p=25%
… but some trajectories turn out to be impossible when looking at the map!
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A naive probabilistic interpretation of the readings
Consider the time points separately (independence assumption)
The association <locations, set of readers> at each time point is naturally modeled by means of a PDF pa(l|R)
pa(l|R) represents the probability that an object is at location l given that it has been detected by the set R of readers
pa(l|R) does not depend on time, but takes into account only the positions of the readers, the topology of the locations, and the physical model of the reader (i.e., reading rate vs. distance)
pa(l|R) will be said to be the a-priori probability distribution and assumed to be given (it is easy to obtain, and in several ways)
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L0
L1
L2
L4
L3
Integrity constraints
DU (direct unreachability) DU(L’, L’’) means there is no direct
connection from L’ to L’’
TT (traveling time) TT(L’,L’’, T) means that T is the min
number of time points needed to go from L’ to L’’
Constraint satisfied!
Example:
TT(L0, L4,
4)
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L0
L1
L2
L4
L3
Integrity constraints
DU (direct unreachability) DU(L’, L’’) means there is no direct
connection from L’ to L’’
TT (traveling time) TT(L’,L’’, T) means that T is the min number
of time points needed to go from L’ to L’’
LT (latency) LT(L, T) means that T is the min number of
time points for which an object, once entered L, must stay at L
Constraint satisfied!
Example:
LT(L0, 3)
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Conditioning probabilities
In our scenario Let R1…Rn be the sequence of readings ( each Ri is the
set of readers that detected the object at time point i )
Let t= t[1]…t[n] be the generic trajectory compatible with the readings (t[i] denotes the location of t at time point i )
The probability of t resulting from independence assumption (a-priori probability) is:
pa(t)= pa(t[1]|R1) × … × pa(t[n]|Rn)
Conditioning pa(t) to a set IC of integrity constraints means revising it as p(t)= pa(t|IC is satisfied)
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Checking constraints while building the CT-graph
Every node is associated with a summary of the «past», used to decide which of the alternative interpretations of the future time points are consistent
For a node representing the presence at L at time point , we store:the duration of the current stay at L (if an LT constraint is defined over
L);the list TL of the locations visited so far and involved in TT constraints, each with the time point of the departure from it
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Checking constraints while building the CT-graph
Every node is associated with a summary of the «past», used to decide which of the alternative interpretations of the future time points are consistent
For a node representing the presence at L at time point , we store:the duration of the current stay at L (if an LT constraint is defined over
L);the list TL of the locations visited so far and involved in TT constraints, each with the time point of the departure from it
It is used to discard a location L’ different from L as a possible next location!
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Checking constraints while building the CT-graph
It is used to discard a location L’ as a possible next location if L’ does not satisfy a TT constraint involving some location !
Every node is associated with a summary of the «past», used to decide which of the alternative interpretations of the future time points are consistent
For a node representing the presence at L at time point , we store:the duration of the current stay at L (if an LT constraint is defined over
L);the list TL of the locations visited so far and involved in TT constraints, each with the time point of the departure from it
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Example
Time 1 2 3
Readings {r1} {r2} {r4}
Locations & Probabilities
L1, 6/10L2,
4/10
L3, 1/3L4, 2/3
L3, 2/3L5, 1/3
00
L1
L2
L3
L5L4r1
r2 r4
Constraints: DU(L2,L3), DU(L4,L5); LT(L4,2); TT(L1,L5,3)
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Example
Time 1 2 3
Set of readers
{r1} {r2} {r4}
Locations & Probabilities
L1, 50%L2,
50%
L3, 50%L4, 50%
L3, 50%L5, 50%
00
L1
L2
L3
L5L4r1
r2 r4
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Building a CT-graph:a 2-phase algorithm
2 Phase algorithmForward phase=1:
Consider as source nodes the locations L1, … , Lk compatible with R0; Assign to them the a-priori probabilities pa(L1|R1), …, pa(Lk|R1)
From to +1: For each node n at , build its successors (locations compatible with R+1
that can prolong the trajectories ending at n without violating any constraint);
Connect n with each node n’ in the just created set of successors with an edge having weight pa(L1|R1);
Backward phaseIteratively remove non-destination nodes having no successors;Revise probabilities to take into account node removals.
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Scenario
Example
L0
L1
L2
L4
L3 A (piece of a) map containing 5
locations
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Scenario
L0
L1
L2
L4
L3
r1
r5r0
Example A (piece of a) map containing 5
locations Several readers (we show 3 of them)
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Scenario
L0
L1
L2
L4
L3
r1
r5r0
Example A (piece of a) map containing 5
locations Several readers (we show 3 of them) A person o equipped with a tag is
moving
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Scenario
L0
L1
L2
L4
L3
Time 1 2 3 4
Set of readers
r1
r5r0
Example A (piece of a) map containing 5 locations Several readers (we show 3 of them) A person o equipped with a tag is moving
Table of detections
![Page 146: B. Fazzinga, S.Flesca, F. Furfaro, F. Parisi DIMES – University of Calabria](https://reader038.fdocuments.us/reader038/viewer/2022110210/56812d0a550346895d91dec9/html5/thumbnails/146.jpg)
Scenario
L0
L1
L2
L4
L3
Time 1 2 3 4
Set of readers
{r1, r5}
r1
r5r0
Example A (piece of a) map containing 5 locations Several readers (we show 3 of them) A person o equipped with a tag is moving
At t=1, o is detected by both r1 and r5
Table of detections
![Page 147: B. Fazzinga, S.Flesca, F. Furfaro, F. Parisi DIMES – University of Calabria](https://reader038.fdocuments.us/reader038/viewer/2022110210/56812d0a550346895d91dec9/html5/thumbnails/147.jpg)
Scenario
L0
L1
L2
L4
L3
Time 1 2 3 4
Set of readers
{r1, r5}
r1
r5r0
Example A (piece of a) map containing 5
locations Several readers (we show 3 of them) A person o equipped with a tag is
moving Table of detections
Then o moves southward
![Page 148: B. Fazzinga, S.Flesca, F. Furfaro, F. Parisi DIMES – University of Calabria](https://reader038.fdocuments.us/reader038/viewer/2022110210/56812d0a550346895d91dec9/html5/thumbnails/148.jpg)
Scenario
L0
L1
L2
L4
L3
Time 1 2 3 4
Set of readers
{r1, r5}
{r1}
r1
r5r0
Example A (piece of a) map containing 5 locations Several readers (we show 3 of them) A person o equipped with a tag is moving
At t=2, o is in the area covered by both r1 and r5, but is detected by r1
only
Table of detections
![Page 149: B. Fazzinga, S.Flesca, F. Furfaro, F. Parisi DIMES – University of Calabria](https://reader038.fdocuments.us/reader038/viewer/2022110210/56812d0a550346895d91dec9/html5/thumbnails/149.jpg)
Scenario
L0
L1
L2
L4
L3
Time 1 2 3 4
Set of readers
{r1, r5}
{r1} {r0}
r1
r5r0
Example A (piece of a) map containing 5 locations Several readers (we show 3 of them) A person o equipped with a tag is moving
Table of detections
Then o moves southward
![Page 150: B. Fazzinga, S.Flesca, F. Furfaro, F. Parisi DIMES – University of Calabria](https://reader038.fdocuments.us/reader038/viewer/2022110210/56812d0a550346895d91dec9/html5/thumbnails/150.jpg)
Scenario
L0
L1
L2
L4
L3
Time 1 2 3 4
Set of readers
{r1, r5}
{r1} {r0}
r1
r5r0
Example A (piece of a) map containing 5 locations Several readers (we show 3 of them) A person o equipped with a tag is moving
Table of detections
At t=3, o is detected by r0
![Page 151: B. Fazzinga, S.Flesca, F. Furfaro, F. Parisi DIMES – University of Calabria](https://reader038.fdocuments.us/reader038/viewer/2022110210/56812d0a550346895d91dec9/html5/thumbnails/151.jpg)
Scenario
L0
L1
L2
L4
L3
Time 1 2 3 4
Set of readers
{r1, r5}
{r1} {r0}
r1
r5r0
Example A (piece of a) map containing 5 locations Several readers (we show 3 of them) A person o equipped with a tag is moving
Table of detections
o keeps moving
![Page 152: B. Fazzinga, S.Flesca, F. Furfaro, F. Parisi DIMES – University of Calabria](https://reader038.fdocuments.us/reader038/viewer/2022110210/56812d0a550346895d91dec9/html5/thumbnails/152.jpg)
Scenario
L0
L1
L2
L4
L3
Time 1 2 3 4
Set of readers
{r1, r5}
{r1} {r0}
r1
r5r0
Example A (piece of a) map containing 5 locations Several readers (we show 3 of them) A person o equipped with a tag is moving
Table of detections
At t=4, even if inside the detection range of r0, o is not detected
![Page 153: B. Fazzinga, S.Flesca, F. Furfaro, F. Parisi DIMES – University of Calabria](https://reader038.fdocuments.us/reader038/viewer/2022110210/56812d0a550346895d91dec9/html5/thumbnails/153.jpg)
Scenario
L0
L1
L2
L4
L3
r1
r5r0
Example A (piece of a) map containing 5 locations Several readers (we show 3 of them) A person o equipped with a tag is moving
Table of detections
PROBLEM: How a sequence of detections can be «interpreted» (i.e., translated into a trajectory)?
Time 1 2 3 4
Set of readers
{r1, r5}
{r1} {r0}
![Page 154: B. Fazzinga, S.Flesca, F. Furfaro, F. Parisi DIMES – University of Calabria](https://reader038.fdocuments.us/reader038/viewer/2022110210/56812d0a550346895d91dec9/html5/thumbnails/154.jpg)
Scenario
r5
Time 1 2 3
Set of readers
{r1, r5} {r1, r5} {r0}
Possible locations
Table of detections
L0
L1
L2
L4
L3
r0
r1
![Page 155: B. Fazzinga, S.Flesca, F. Furfaro, F. Parisi DIMES – University of Calabria](https://reader038.fdocuments.us/reader038/viewer/2022110210/56812d0a550346895d91dec9/html5/thumbnails/155.jpg)
Scenario
r5r0
Time 1 2 3
Set of readers
{r1, r5} {r1, r5} {r0}
Possible locations
L1L4
Table of detections
L0
L1
L2
L4
L3
r1
![Page 156: B. Fazzinga, S.Flesca, F. Furfaro, F. Parisi DIMES – University of Calabria](https://reader038.fdocuments.us/reader038/viewer/2022110210/56812d0a550346895d91dec9/html5/thumbnails/156.jpg)
Scenario
r5r0
Time 1 2 3
Set of readers
{r1, r5} {r1, r5} {r0}
Possible locations
L1L4
Table of detections
L0
L1
L2
L4
L3
r1
![Page 157: B. Fazzinga, S.Flesca, F. Furfaro, F. Parisi DIMES – University of Calabria](https://reader038.fdocuments.us/reader038/viewer/2022110210/56812d0a550346895d91dec9/html5/thumbnails/157.jpg)
Scenario
r1
r5r0
Time 1 2 3
Set of readers
{r1, r5} {r1, r5} {r0}
Possible locations
L1L4
L1L4
Table of detections
L0
L1
L2
L4
L3
![Page 158: B. Fazzinga, S.Flesca, F. Furfaro, F. Parisi DIMES – University of Calabria](https://reader038.fdocuments.us/reader038/viewer/2022110210/56812d0a550346895d91dec9/html5/thumbnails/158.jpg)
Scenario
r1
r5r0
Time 1 2 3
Set of readers
{r1, r5} {r1, r5} {r0}
Possible locations
L1L4
L1L4
Table of detections
L0
L1
L2
L4
L3
![Page 159: B. Fazzinga, S.Flesca, F. Furfaro, F. Parisi DIMES – University of Calabria](https://reader038.fdocuments.us/reader038/viewer/2022110210/56812d0a550346895d91dec9/html5/thumbnails/159.jpg)
Scenario
r1
r5r0
Time 1 2 3
Set of readers
{r1, r5} {r1, r5} {r0}
Possible locations
L1L4
L1L4
L0
Table of detections
L0
L1
L2
L4
L3
![Page 160: B. Fazzinga, S.Flesca, F. Furfaro, F. Parisi DIMES – University of Calabria](https://reader038.fdocuments.us/reader038/viewer/2022110210/56812d0a550346895d91dec9/html5/thumbnails/160.jpg)
r1
r5r0
Table of detections
L0
L1
L2
L4
L3
Probabilistically associating locations with readings
Time 1 2 3
Set of readers
{r1, r5} {r1, r5} {r0}
Possible locations
L1L4
L1L4
L0
Locations & Probabilities
pa(L1|{r1,r5}) = 50%pa(L4|{r1,r5}) = 50%
![Page 161: B. Fazzinga, S.Flesca, F. Furfaro, F. Parisi DIMES – University of Calabria](https://reader038.fdocuments.us/reader038/viewer/2022110210/56812d0a550346895d91dec9/html5/thumbnails/161.jpg)
=1 =2 =3
n1 loss=0
L1
TL=
p=6/10
Constraints: DU(L2,L3), DU(L4,L5); LT(L4,2); TT(L1,L5,3)
n2 loss=1/3
L2
TL=
p=4/10
n3 loss=1/3
L3
TL= <1,L1>n4
L40
TL= <1,L1>
n5
L40
TL=
1/3
2/3
2/3
Time 1 2 3
Readings {r1} {r2} {r3}
Locations L1, 6/10; L2, 4/10 L3, 1/3; L4, 2/3L3, 2/3; L5,
1/3
n6
L3
TL= <1,L1>
2/3
And so on!
![Page 162: B. Fazzinga, S.Flesca, F. Furfaro, F. Parisi DIMES – University of Calabria](https://reader038.fdocuments.us/reader038/viewer/2022110210/56812d0a550346895d91dec9/html5/thumbnails/162.jpg)
=1 =2 =3
n1 loss=0
L1
TL=
p=6/10
Constraints: DU(L2,L3), DU(L4,L5); LT(L4,2); TT(L1,L5,3)
n2 loss=1/3
L2
TL=
p=4/10
n3 loss=1/3
L3
TL= <1,L1>n4
L40
TL= <1,L1>
n5
L40
TL=
1/3
2/3
2/3
Time 1 2 3
Readings {r1} {r2} {r3}
Locations L1, 6/10; L2, 4/10 L3, 1/3; L4, 2/3L3, 2/3; L5,
1/3
n6
L3
TL= <1,L1>
n7
L5
TL= <1,L1>
2/3
1/3
![Page 163: B. Fazzinga, S.Flesca, F. Furfaro, F. Parisi DIMES – University of Calabria](https://reader038.fdocuments.us/reader038/viewer/2022110210/56812d0a550346895d91dec9/html5/thumbnails/163.jpg)
=1 =2 =3
n1 loss=0
L1
TL=
p=6/10
Constraints: DU(L2,L3), DU(L4,L5); LT(L4,2); TT(L1,L5,3)
n2 loss=1/3
L2
TL=
p=4/10
n3 loss=1/3
L3
TL= <1,L1>n4 loss=1
L40
TL= <1,L1>
n5
L40
TL=
1/3
2/3
2/3
Time 1 2 3
Readings {r1} {r2} {r3}
Locations L1, 6/10; L2, 4/10 L3, 1/3; L4, 2/3L3, 2/3; L5,
1/3
n6
L3
TL= <1,L1>
n7
L3
TL= <1,L1>
2/3
2/3
Same location, Same history
Same node!
![Page 164: B. Fazzinga, S.Flesca, F. Furfaro, F. Parisi DIMES – University of Calabria](https://reader038.fdocuments.us/reader038/viewer/2022110210/56812d0a550346895d91dec9/html5/thumbnails/164.jpg)
=1 =2 =3
n1 loss=0
L1
TL=
p=6/10
Constraints: DU(L2,L3), DU(L4,L5); LT(L4,2); TT(L1,L5,3)
n2 loss=1/3
L2
TL=
p=4/10
n3 loss=1/3
L3
TL= <1,L1>n4 loss=1
L40
TL= <1,L1>
n5
L40
TL=
1/3
2/3
2/3
Time 1 2 3
Readings {r1} {r2} {r3}
Locations L1, 6/10; L2, 4/10 L3, 1/3; L4, 2/3L3, 2/3; L5,
1/3
n6
L3
TL= <1,L1>
n7
L3
TL= <1,L1>
2/3
2/3
Same location, Same history
Same node!
![Page 165: B. Fazzinga, S.Flesca, F. Furfaro, F. Parisi DIMES – University of Calabria](https://reader038.fdocuments.us/reader038/viewer/2022110210/56812d0a550346895d91dec9/html5/thumbnails/165.jpg)
=1 =2 =3
n1 loss=0
L1
TL=
p=6/10
Constraints: DU(L2,L3), DU(L4,L5); LT(L4,2); TT(L1,L5,3)
n2 loss=1/3
L2
TL=
p=4/10
n3 loss=1/3
L3
TL= <1,L1>n4 loss=1
L40
TL= <1,L1>
n5
L40
TL=
1/3
2/3
2/3
Time 1 2 3
Readings {r1} {r2} {r3}
Locations L1, 6/10; L2, 4/10 L3, 1/3; L4, 2/3L3, 2/3; L5,
1/3
n6
L3
TL= <1,L1>
2/3
2/3
![Page 166: B. Fazzinga, S.Flesca, F. Furfaro, F. Parisi DIMES – University of Calabria](https://reader038.fdocuments.us/reader038/viewer/2022110210/56812d0a550346895d91dec9/html5/thumbnails/166.jpg)
=1 =2 =3
n1 loss=0
L1
TL=
p=6/10
Constraints: DU(L2,L3), DU(L4,L5); LT(L4,2); TT(L1,L5,3)
n2 loss=1/3
L2
TL=
p=4/10
n3 loss=1/3
L3
TL= <1,L1>n4 loss=1
L40
TL= <1,L1>
n5
L40
TL=
1/3
2/3
2/3
Time 1 2 3
Readings {r1} {r2} {r3}
Locations L1, 6/10; L2, 4/10 L3, 1/3; L4, 2/3L3, 2/3; L5,
1/3
n6
L3
TL= <1,L1>
n7
L5
TL= <1,L1>
2/3
1/3
![Page 167: B. Fazzinga, S.Flesca, F. Furfaro, F. Parisi DIMES – University of Calabria](https://reader038.fdocuments.us/reader038/viewer/2022110210/56812d0a550346895d91dec9/html5/thumbnails/167.jpg)
=1 =2 =3
n1 loss=0
L1
TL=
p=6/10
Constraints: DU(L2,L3), DU(L4,L5); LT(L4,2); TT(L1,L5,3)
n2 loss=1/3
L2
TL=
p=4/10
n3 loss=1/3
L3
TL= <1,L1>n4 loss=1
L40
TL= <1,L1>
n5 loss=1
L40
TL=
1/3
2/3
2/3
Time 1 2 3
Readings {r1} {r2} {r3}
Locations L1, 6/10; L2, 4/10 L3, 1/3; L4, 2/3 L3, 2/3; L5, 1/3
n6
L3
TL= <1,L1>
2/3
![Page 168: B. Fazzinga, S.Flesca, F. Furfaro, F. Parisi DIMES – University of Calabria](https://reader038.fdocuments.us/reader038/viewer/2022110210/56812d0a550346895d91dec9/html5/thumbnails/168.jpg)
L1 L1 L4 L4 L5
L2 L2 L4 L4
L5
0.6
0.4
1
1
1 1 1
1
1
1 0.2
0.8
=1 =2 =3 =4 =5