8/2/2019 b Ed Assinments

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/b-ed-assinments 1/38

Q. 1 What is lesson planning? Explain the various steps involved in planning a lesson and

how can we plan opportunities for student’s participation?

Lesson plan A lesson plan is a teacher 's detailed description of the course of instruction for one class. A daily

lesson plan is developed by a teacher to guide class instruction. Details will vary depending on the

preference of the teacher, subject being covered, and the need and/or curiosity of children. There may

be requirements mandated by the school system regarding the plan.[1]

•

Developing a lesson plan

While there are many formats for a lesson plan, most lesson plans contain some or all of these

elements, typically in this order:

Title of the lesson

Time required to complete the lesson

List of required materials

List of  objectives, which may be behavioral objectives (what the student can do at lesson

completion) or  knowledge objectives (what the student know s at lesson completion)

The set (or lead-in, or bridge-in) that focuses students on the lesson's skills or  concepts—these include showing pictures or models, asking leading questions, or reviewing previous

lessons

 An instructional component that describes the sequence of events that make up the lesson,

including the teacher's instructional input and guided practice the students use to try new skills or 

work with new ideas

Independent  practice that allows students to extend skills or knowledge on their own

 A summary , where the teacher wraps up the discussion and answers questions

 An evaluation component, a test for mastery of the instructed skills or concepts—such as a

set of questions to answer or a set of instructions to follow

 Analysis component the teacher uses to reflect on the lesson itself —such as what worked,

what needs improving

 A continuity component reviews and reflects on content from the previous lesson[2]

1

8/2/2019 b Ed Assinments

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/b-ed-assinments 2/38

A well-developed lesson plan

 A well-developed lesson plan reflects the interests and needs of students. It incorporates best

practices for the educational field. The lesson plan correlates with the teacher's philosophy of 

education, which is what the teacher feels is the purpose of educating the students.[3]

Secondary English program lesson plans, for example, usually center around four topics. They

are literary theme, elements of language andcomposition, literary history, and literary genre. A broad,

thematic lesson plan is preferable, because it allows a teacher to create various research, writing,

speaking, and reading assignments. It helps an instructor teach different literature genres and

incorporate videotapes, films, and television programs. Also, it facilitates teaching literature and

English together.[3] Similarly, history lesson plans focus on content (historical accuracy and

background information), analytic thinking, scaffolding, and the practicality of lesson structure and

meeting of educational goals.[4] School requirements and a teacher's personal tastes, in that order,

determine the exact requirements for a lesson plan.

Unit plans follow much the same format as a lesson plan, but cover an entire unit of work, which may

span several days or weeks. Modernconstructivist teaching styles may not require individual lesson

plans. The unit plan may include specific objectives and timelines, but lesson plans can be more fluid

as they adapt to student needs and learning styles.

Setting an objective

The first thing a teacher does is create an objective, a statement of purpose for the whole lesson. An

objective statement itself should answer what students will be able to do by the end of the lesson.Harry Wong states that, “Each [objective] must begin with a verb that states the action to be taken to

show accomplishment. The most important word to use in an assignment is a verb, because verbs

state how to demonstrate if accomplishment has taken place or not.” [5] The objective drives the whole

lesson, it is the reason the lesson exists. Care is taken when creating the objective for each day’s

lesson, as it will determine the activities the students engage in. The teacher also ensures that lesson

plan goals are compatible with the developmental level of the students. The teacher ensures as well

that their student achievement expectations are reasonable.[3]

Selecting lesson plan material

 A lesson plan must correlate with the text book the class uses. The school usually selects the text

books or provides teachers with a limited text book choice for a particular unit. The teacher must take

great care and select the most appropriate book for the students.[3]

2

8/2/2019 b Ed Assinments

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/b-ed-assinments 3/38

Types of Assignments

The instructor must decide whether class assignments are whole-class, small groups, workshops,

independent work, peer learning, or contractual:

Whole-class—the teacher lectures to the class as a whole and has the class collectively

participate in classroom discussions.

Small groups—students work on assignments in groups of three or four.

Workshops—students perform various tasks simultaneously. Workshop activities must be

tailored to the lesson plan.

Independent work—students complete assignments individually.

Peer learning—students work together, face to face, so they can learn from one another.

Contractual work—teacher and student establish an agreement that the student must perform

a certain amount of work by a deadline.[3]

These assignment categories (e.g. peer learning, independent, small groups) can also be used to

guide the instructor’s choice of assessment measures that can provide information about student and

class comprehension of the material. As discussed by Biggs (1999), there are additional questions an

instructor can consider when choosing which type of assignment would provide the most benefit to

students. These include:

What level of learning do the students need to attain before choosing assignments with

varying difficulty levels?

What is the amount of time the instructor wants the students to use to complete the

assignment?

How much time and effort does the instructor have to provide student grading and feedback?

What is the purpose of the assignment? (e.g. to track student learning; to provide students

with time to practice concepts; to practice incidental skills such as group process or independent

research)

How does the assignment fit with the rest of the lesson plan? Does the assignment test

content knowledge or does it require application in a new context?[6]

3

8/2/2019 b Ed Assinments

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/b-ed-assinments 4/38

Q. 2 Describe the meaning and characteristics of evaluation. Make valid decisions

about using different criteria for evaluating student’s performance in English.

various steps involved in planning a lesson

Technology Integration Lesson Planning Process

When designing computer-based activities, you must give consideration to how technology

can be used to acquire, organize, demonstrate, and communicate information. The planning

 process for technology integration is similar to planning a curriculum unit. The maindifferences are HOW the students acquire the knowledge and skills, HOW they

demonstrate and apply the knowledge and skills, and HOW learning will be assessed or 

evaluated. These differences have a major influence on the structure of a lesson plan asthey incorporate the use of the computer.

In addition to the skills and knowledge that must be taught as part of the curriculum,

consideration must also be given to the technology skills students need to learn. Oftenteachers assume that the students will figure it out on their own. However, this can waste

instructional time. It is a good idea to plan ahead, so that the time in the computer lab iswell spent.

Step 1: Examine Curriculum Documents

select the topic

identify learning objectives within a subject

Step 2: Determine Knowledge and Skills

determine students’ background knowledge and existing technology skills

decide how students will acquire new knowledge and skills gather resources required to achieve instructional goals

4

8/2/2019 b Ed Assinments

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/b-ed-assinments 5/38

Step 3: Select a Technology Product to Apply Learning

choose a technology-based product for students to create

outline the content it will contain select the software program(s) needed

list the technology skills required to complete the task 

Step 4: Select a Method of Assessment and Criteria for Evaluation

determine the method of assessment set the criteria to evaluate the technology product with a focus upon content,

quality of information, layout and design, and technology skills demonstrated

Technology Integration Sample: Lesson Planning for Teachers

Imagine you are planning an endangered species unit.

Step 1 Examine Curriculum Documents: As part of this unit, your students must investigatehow animals have adapted to their environment and analyze the effects of human activities

on habitats. You decide that you are going to integrate technology to achieve these aims.

Step 2 Determine Knowledge and Skills: One of your first considerations is what your students already know about the computer. They need to have basic computer skills. For 

example, they need to know how to use the keyboard and mouse, login to the computer,

open and close programs, and save files. If your students do not possess these skills, you

will need to teach them.Another consideration is what your students know about endangered species and what they

still need to learn. You may decide that in addition to books, your students will use theInternet to research. However, they may not have the skills to use the Internet. Perhapsstudents have never used a web browser or search engine. This means that you will need to

teach these skills as well.

Step 3 Select a Technology Product: You decide your students will write a brief report

about their animal using a word processing program. The report will include facts and

 pictures. Again, your students may not possess the technology skills necessary to completethis task, so you will need to teach them.

Step 4 Select a Method of Assessment and Criteria for Evaluation: Upon completion of the

report, you will evaluate the work. Consider a method of assessment and criteria for 

evaluation. When selecting the criteria, decide if you plan to evaluate only the content anddesign of the report or if you will also include the application of technology skills.

Lesson planning for teachers involving technology integration can be simple. Planning

ahead is the key to success.

Increasing Student Participation

5

8/2/2019 b Ed Assinments

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/b-ed-assinments 6/38

While increasing participation is an obvious goal in courses that include frequent discussions and

small-group work, it is also important in a lecture course. In short, if only a few students participate

by volunteering answers, asking questions, or contributing to discussions, class sessions become

to some extent a lost opportunity to assess and promote learning. You can improve student

participation in your course by devoting time and thought to shaping the environment and planning

each class session. Furthermore, the way in which you interact, both verbally and non-verbally,

communicates to students your attitude about participation.

Ideally, the goal of increasing participation is not to have every student participate in the same way

or at the same rate. Instead, it is to create an environment in which all participants have the

opportunity to learn and in which the class explores issues and ideas in depth, from a variety of 

viewpoints. Some students will raise their voices more than others; this variation is a result of 

differences in learning preferences as well as differences in personalities. For example, some

students who do not speak often in class are reflective learners, who typically develop ideas and

questions in their minds before speaking; others are shy students who feel uncomfortable speaking

in front of groups (at least initially). Many students who frequently volunteer to contribute areactive

learners, who typically think while they speak. The instructor’s goal is to create conditions that

enable students of various learning preferences and personalities to contribute. To reach this goal,

you will need to take extra steps to encourage quiet students to speak up and, occasionally, ask

the more verbose students to hold back from commenting in order to give others a chance.

This handout is divided into the following sections:

Shaping the Environment

Planning

Listening and RespondingLinks and References

Shaping the Environment

Reserve a classroom that will accommodate the kind of participation you have in mind.

Starting on the first day of class, arrange the room in a way that encourages active

engagement.

When it is time to reserve a classroom, keep in mind not only the number of student chairs you will

need, but also whether these chairs should be moveable. If you lead frequent discussions, consider 

moving the chairs into a circle or “U” to ensure that students can see, and speak to, one another. If 

you are teaching in a large lecture hall, consider asking students to move so that they are

concentrated near the front of the room. Move the chairs back to their standard configuration at the

end of class (in University-managed classrooms, see the diagram posted near the door).

Make clear from the beginning your expectation that students will participate.

On the first day of class, explain what you see as valuable about class participation. Indicate that

you want to do all you can to ensure that the classroom dynamics and activities support full

6

8/2/2019 b Ed Assinments

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/b-ed-assinments 7/38

participation, including calling on students who do not raise their hands and sometimes asking

frequent contributors to allow others to have a chance. Ask students to inform you if you can make

any changes to improve the classroom dynamics and rates of participation.

On the first day of class, give students a clear idea of what to expect regarding participation. If you

plan to lecture each day with pauses for questions and discussion, do so on the first day; if you

plan to lead more extended discussions, then do so on the first day (see Tips for Teaching on the

First Day of Class).

Consider whether you will assign a grade to students’ performance in discussions so that they

understand the importance of participating. If you do plan to grade participation, inform students of 

the specific criteria that you will use. For example, will you evaluate the frequency and quality of 

their contributions, as well as how effectively they each respond to others’ comments? Will you

include in each participation grade the student’s performance on informal writing, online

discussions, minor group projects, or other work? Grading student participation is especially

important, and usually essential, in discussion courses (seeTeaching with Discussions).

Learn and use students’ names.

Students will be more engaged if they believe that you perceive them as individuals, rather than as

anonymous members of a group. Encourage students to learn one another’s names, as well; this

strategy will increase the possibility that they will address one another by name and direct their 

comments to one another, not just to you.

Return to top.

PlanningIn a discussion course, assign to your students some of the responsibility for increasing

participation by all.

For example, on the first day of class, you might tell students your goals for class participation (e.g.,

informed and lively discussions in which everyone participates) and ask them to come up with a list

of guidelines that will help the class reach this goal. Typically, they will generate excellent

guidelines such as “do not interrupt others when they are talking” and “critique the ideas; don’t

criticize the person.” Post this list on the course Web site and hand it out in class. Students who

feel invested from the beginning in making the discussions successful will be more likely to work

together to increase participation.

Consider requiring students to lead discussions or to submit discussion questions before class.

Provide guidance and assess student performance on these tasks (assigning a score, for example,

that forms a part of the class participation grade.)

In discussion courses in which you are having trouble getting students to participate, consider 

asking students to submit anonymous comments on class participation as well as suggestions on

7

8/2/2019 b Ed Assinments

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/b-ed-assinments 8/38

how to get more people involved; often, they will let you know that there are problems with the

classroom dynamics that you may not see yourself (such as that some students resent the

“domination” of discussion by one or two others) or that the structure of the discussions has

become too predictable or formulaic.

Use a variety of teaching methods, including lectures, discussions, and small-group work.

If you are teaching a lecture course, set aside time during each lecture to ask and answer 

questions, to ask students to solve a problem, or to discuss an issue. Pause every 15-20 minutesfor this purpose. When students learn to expect these opportunities for discussion or questioning,

they will listen more actively to the lecture. If you lecture for 45 minutes before you pause for 

questions or discussion, your students will have been taking notes for so long that they may find it

difficult to switch modes quickly. Furthermore, they may well have forgotten questions, comments,

or unclear concepts from the earlier parts of class (see Teaching with Lectures).

If you are teaching a discussion course, integrate short lectures into the lesson plan in order to

introduce concepts, clarify and order ideas, and help students make connections. Use small-group

discussions, informal writing assignments, and online discussions before or at the start of class to

prompt student thinking about the discussion topic. These strategies can be effective ways toprovide reflective learners and shy students a means of developing ideas that they can then

contribute to the class discussion. Commenting on the insights that quieter students contribute in

small-group discussions and on informal writing assignments and online discussions can

encourage them to speak up in the larger group; you might comment on a student’s written work,

for example, “this analysis is insightful; the entire class would benefit from hearing your ideas more

often” (see Teaching with Discussions).

Organize each class session to include opportunities throughout to ask and answer 

questions; prepare initial and follow-up questions ahead of time.

Use questions to assess student learning, to signal to students which material is the most

important, and to help students advance their knowledge and thinking. (For a discussion of 

strategies for formulating questions, see Asking Questions to Improve Learning). Encourage

students to ask questions throughout the class (approximately every 15 minutes), not just at the

end.

8

8/2/2019 b Ed Assinments

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/b-ed-assinments 9/38

If grading student participation, plan to give students a preliminary participation grade, as

well as a brief written evaluation of their performance.

If you will grade class participation, give students preliminary grades as early as 3-4 weeks into the

semester and at midterm so that they will know where they stand. Your written evaluation can be

designed to encourage the quiet students to talk more often and the verbose students to hold their 

comments to give others a chance to participate).

Listening and Responding

Use verbal and non-verbal cues to encourage participation.

Do not rely on the same volunteers to answer every question. Respond to frequent volunteers in a

way that indicates that you appreciate their responses, but want to hear from others as well. Move

to a part of the room where quiet students are sitting; smile at and make eye contact with these

students to encourage them to speak up. By the same token, when frequent volunteers speak, look

around the room rather than only at them to encourage others to respond (see below).

Reduce students’ anxieties by creating an atmosphere in which they feel comfortable “thinking out-

loud,” taking intellectual risks, asking questions, and admitting when they do not know something;

one of the best ways to do this is to model these behaviors yourself.

Give students time to think before they respond to your questions.

Do not be afraid of silence. Give students 5-10 seconds to think and formulate a response. If 10-15

seconds pass without anyone volunteering an answer and the students are giving you puzzled

looks, rephrase your question. Do not give in to the temptation to answer your own questions,which will condition students to hesitate before answering to see if you will supply “the answer.”

Patience is key; do not be afraid of silence. The longer you wait for students to respond, the more

thoughtful and complex those responses are likely to be.

Often, there is at least one student in every class who will quickly raise her or his hand to answer 

nearly every question. If you consistently call on this student, those who require more time to

formulate answers will simply learn to wait for this student to answer 

9

8/2/2019 b Ed Assinments

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/b-ed-assinments 10/38

Listen fully to your students’ questions and answers; avoid interrupting.

Resist the urge to interrupt when you think you know what the student is going to say or ask. Often,

well-meaning and enthusiastic instructors make incorrect assumptions and leave their students’

actual questions unanswered or misrepresent what the students had planned to say.

Provide specific, encouraging, varied responses.

Point out what is helpful or interesting about student contributions. Pick up on comments that were

made but not discussed. Do not use the same, standard praise to respond to every comment.

When students hear “good point” again and again, they start to lose motivation. Ask follow-up

questions to prompt students to clarify, refine, and support their ideas. When a student gives anincorrect or ill-conceived answer, respond in way that challenges the student to think more deeply

or to reconsider the evidence. The best way to shut down participation, and learning, is to

embarrass a student.

Repeat student responses to summarize or clarify ideas.

Use this strategy when a student’s comments are vague or “all over the map,” but do not over-use

it, leading students to rely on you to “translate” or validate their ideas.

Redirect comments and questions to other students.

Encourage students to respond to one another, rather than merely to you. When a student is

speaking, look around the room, not just at the student who is speaking; making eye contact with

other students lets them know that you expect them to be listening and formulating responses.

Provide students with a model of civil discourse by demonstrating respect for, and interest in, the

views of others. Learn to limit your own comments. Particularly when facilitating a discussion, hold

back from responding to every comment; otherwise, students will learn to wait for you to respond

rather than formulating their own responses.

Place the emphasis on student ideas.

Encourage students to share their ideas and use those ideas (with attribution) whenever you can.

Referring back to a comment made by a student in an earlier class demonstrates that you have

thought about and appreciated what your students have to say.

10

8/2/2019 b Ed Assinments

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/b-ed-assinments 11/38

 Active student participation does not happen naturally in university courses; it must be carefully 

 planned and encouraged. Set aside time throughout the semester to assess student participation in

your course and to develop strategies for improvement; administer midterm student evaluations to

help you with this process. Consider asking a colleague to observe your class; often, outside

observers can discern patterns that hinder participation but that may not be apparent to

 participants. Take notes during and after a semester so that you have a record of what went well 

and what you would like to change the next time you teach the course in order to increase student 

 participation.

Q NO;2 Describe the meaning and characteristics of evaluation. Make valid decisions

about using different criteria for evaluating student’s performance in English.

(20)

A Definition of Evaluation

Kate Kiefer, English ProfessorLike most specific assignments that teachers give, writing evaluations mirrors whathappens so often in our day-to-day lives. Every day we decide whether thetemperature is cold enough to need a light or heavy jacket; whether we're willing tospend money on a good book or a good movie; whether the prices at the grocery storetell us to keep shopping at the same place or somewhere else for a better value.

 Academic tasks rely on evaluation just as often. Is a source reliable? Does an argumentconvince? Is the article worth reading? So writing evaluation helps students make thisoften unconscious daily task more overt and prepares them to examine ideas, facts,arguments, and so on more critically.

To evaluate is to assess or appraise. Evaluation is the process of 

examining a subject and rating it based on its important features. Wedetermine how much or how little we value something, arriving at our

 judgment on the basis of criteria that we can define.

We evaluate when we write primarily because it is almost impossible to

avoid doing so. If right now you were asked to write for five minutes onany subject and were asked to keep your writing completely value-free,you would probably find such an assignment difficult. Readers come toevaluative writing in part because they seek  the opinions of other peoplefor one reason or another.

Characteristics of evaluation

11

8/2/2019 b Ed Assinments

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/b-ed-assinments 12/38

Strategy evaluation 

must meet several basic requirements to be effective. First, strategy-evaluation activities must be

economical; too much information can be just as bad as too little information and too many controls can do

more harm than good. Strategy evaluation activities also should be meaningful they should specifically

relate to a firm’s objectives. They should provide managers with useful information about tasks over which

they have control and influence.

Strategy-evaluation activities should provide timely information on occasion and in some areas, managers

may daily need information. For example, when affirm has diversified by acquiring another firm, evaluative

information may be needed frequently. However, in an R&D department, daily or even weekly evaluative

information could be dysfunctional. Approximate information that is timely is generally more desirable as a

basis for strategy evaluation than accurate information that doses not edict the present. Frequent

measurement and rapid reporting may frustrate control rather than give better control. The time dimension of 

control must coincide with the time span of the event being measured.

Strategy evaluation should be designed to provide a true picture of what is happening. For example, in an

ever economic downturn, productivity and profitability ratios may drop alarmingly, although employees and

managers are actually working harder. Strategy evaluations should fairly portray this type of situation.

Information derived from the strategy-evaluation process should facilitate action and should be directed to

those individuals in the organizations who need to take action based on it. Managers commonly ignore

evaluative reports that are provided only or informational purposes; not all managers need to receive all

reports. Controls need to action-oriented rather than information-oriented.

The strategy-evaluation process should not dominate decisions; it should foster mutual understanding,

trust, and common sense. No department should fail to cooperate with another in evaluating strategies.Strategy evaluations should be simple, not too cumbersome, and not too restrictive. Complex strategy-

evaluation system is its usefulness, not its complexity.

Large organizations require a more elaborate and detailed strategy-evaluation system because it is more

difficult to coordinate efforts among different divisions and functional areas. Managers in small companies’

often communicate daily with each other and their employees and do not need expensive evaluative

reporting systems. Familiarity with local environments usually makes gathering and evaluating information

much easier for small organizations than for large businesses. But the key to an effective strategy-

evaluation system may be the ability to convince participants that failure to accomplish certain objectives

within a prescribed time is not necessarily a reflection of their performance.

There is no one ideal strategy-evaluation system. The unique characteristics of an organization, including

fits size, management style, purpose, problems, and strengths, can determine a strategy-evaluation and

control system’s final design

12

8/2/2019 b Ed Assinments

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/b-ed-assinments 13/38

Q. 3 Identify different types of nouns and pronouns with examples.

Common nouns 

are the names of things in general, such as cat, dog, road, city, skirt, colour etc.

 proper noun

is the name of a particular person, place or thing, such as Kate, Billy, Manchester, Thames, Rover etc. Allproper nouns start with a capital letter.

 collective noun

is the name given to a group of things, for example a flock of birds or a herd of cows.

 abstract noun

is something you can't see, hear, touch or taste. These can be emotions (happiness, grief) or states (peace,

quiet) for example.

Decide which type of noun best describes the next ten words from the drop-down lists, then click on"Finished" to see how you did.

HOME  PARTS OFSPEECH

SENTENCESTRUCTURE

PUNCTUATION USAGE EXERCISES

 

PRONOUNS

Pronouns are words that substitute for nouns.

Every pronoun must have a clear antecedent  (the word for which the pronounstands).

13

8/2/2019 b Ed Assinments

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/b-ed-assinments 14/38

KINDS OF PRONOUNS 

A.  Personal Pronouns: 

SINGULAR PLURAL

subjective objective possessive subjective objective possessive

1st person I me my, mine we us our, ours

2nd person you you your, yours you you your, yours

3rd person hesheit 

himher it 

hisher  , hersits

they  

them their, theirs

 

Personal pronouns have the following characteristics:

 

1. three persons (points of view)

1st person - the one(s) speaking (I me my mine we us our ours)2nd person - the one(s) spoken to (you your yours)3rd person - the one(s) spoken about (he him his she her hers it its they their theirs)

Examples

14

8/2/2019 b Ed Assinments

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/b-ed-assinments 15/38

 

2. three genders

feminine (she her hers)masculine (he him his)neuter (it its they them their theirs)

Examples

15

8/2/2019 b Ed Assinments

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/b-ed-assinments 16/38

 

3. two numbers

singular (I me my mine you your yours he him his she her hers it its)plural (we us our ours you your yours they them their theirs)

Examples

 

4. three cases

  subjective (I you he she it we they )possessive (my mine your yours his her hers our ours their theirs)objective (me you him her it us them)

Examples - subjective case

16

8/2/2019 b Ed Assinments

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/b-ed-assinments 17/38

 

Examples - possessive case

 

Examples - objective case

17

8/2/2019 b Ed Assinments

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/b-ed-assinments 18/38

 

NOTE: Because of pronoun case, the pronoun's form changes with its function in thesentence. Follow this link to pronoun case for more information.

 

18

8/2/2019 b Ed Assinments

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/b-ed-assinments 19/38

B.  Demonstrative Pronouns: 

Demonstrative pronouns can also be used as determiners. 

Example:

 

Hand me that hammer. (that describes the noun hammer)

 

Demonstrative pronouns can also be used as qualifiers: 

Example: 

She wanted that much money? ( that describes the adjective much)

 

C. Reflexive / Intensive Pronouns : the "self" pronouns 

These pronouns can be used only to reflect or intensify a word already there inthe sentence. 

Reflexive / intensive pronouns CANNOT REPLACE personal pronouns. 

Examples:

 

I saw myself   in the mirror. (Myself is a reflexive pronoun, reflecting the prono 

I’ll do it myself . (Myself is an intensive pronoun, intensifying the pronoun I .) 

Note: The following words are substandard and should not be used: 

theirselves theirself hisself ourself  

19

8/2/2019 b Ed Assinments

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/b-ed-assinments 20/38

 

D. Indefinite Pronouns: 

Singular: 

one someone anyone no one everyone

each somebody anybody nobody everybody  (n)either something anything nothing everything   

Examples:

 

Somebody is coming to dinner.

Neither of us believes a word Harry says.

Plural: 

Examples:

Both are expected at the airport at the same time.

Several have suggested canceling the meeting.

Singular with non-countables / Plural with countables:

Examples:

Some of the dirt has become a permanent part of the rug.

Some of the trees have been weakened by the storm.

Indefinite pronouns use apostrophes to indicate possessive case.

Examples:

The accident is nobody’s fault.How will the roadwork affect one's daily commute?

Some indefinite pronouns may also be used as determiners.

20

8/2/2019 b Ed Assinments

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/b-ed-assinments 21/38

one, each, either, neither, some, any, one, all, both, few, several, many,most 

Note the differences:

Each person has a chance.

(Each is a determiner describing person.)

Each has a chance.

(Each is an indefinite pronoun replacing a noun.)

Both lawyers pled their cases well.

(Both is a determiner describing lawyers.)

Both were in the room.

(Both is an indefinite pronoun replacing a noun.)

21

8/2/2019 b Ed Assinments

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/b-ed-assinments 22/38

E. Interrogative Pronouns:

Interrogative pronouns produce information questions that require more than a“yes” or “no” answer.

Examples:

What do you want?

Who is there?

F. Relative Pronouns:

Relative pronouns introduce relative (adjectival) clauses.

 

Note: Use who, whom, and whose to refer to people.Use that and which to refer to things.

 

22

8/2/2019 b Ed Assinments

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/b-ed-assinments 23/38

Q. 4 Define the terms verb, adverbs and preposition and explain their uses with

examples.

Definition:

 The part of speech (or word class) that describes an action or occurrence or indicates a state

of being.

 There are two main classes of verbs: (1) the large open class of lexical verbs (also known

as main verbs or full verbs--that is, verbs that aren't dependent on other verbs); and (2) the

small closed class of auxiliary verbs (also called helping verbs). The two subtypes of auxiliaries

are the primary auxiliaries (be, have, and do), which can also act as lexical verbs, and

the modal auxiliaries (can, could, may, might, must, ought, shall, should, will, andwould).

Verbs and verb phrases usually function aspredicates. They can display differences

in tense,mood, aspect, number, person, and voice. See "Observations," below.

See also: Notes on Verbs and Verb Phrase.

Types and Forms of Verbs:

• Ten Types of Verbs

• Ten Quick Questions and Answers About Verbs and Verbals in English

• Auxiliary Verb

• A-Verbing

• Base Form

• Catenative Verb

• Causative Verb

• Copula

• Denominal Verb

• Dynamic Verb & Stative Verb

• Finite Verb & Nonfinite Verb

• Hidden Verb

• Intransitive Verb & Transitive Verb

• Irregular Verb & Regular Verb

• Iterative

• Lexical Verb

• Light Verb

• Linking Verb

• Main Verb

• Modal 

• Mood• Performative Verb

• Phrasal Verb

• Prepositional Verb

• Principal Parts of a Verb

• Psych Verb

• Reporting Verb

23

8/2/2019 b Ed Assinments

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/b-ed-assinments 24/38

Etymology:

From the Latin, "word"

Examples:

• "Do what you can, with what you have, where you are."

(Theodore Roosevelt)

• "First you take a drink, then the drink takes a drink, then the drink takes you."

(F. Scott Fitzgerald)

• "In the whole vast configuration of things, I'd say you were nothing but a scurvy little

spider."(Jimmy Stewart, It's a Wonderful Life)

• "Automobiles, skirting a village green, are like flies that have gained the inner ear--

theybuzz, cease, pause, start, shift, stop, halt, brake, and the whole effect is a nervous

polytone curiously disturbing."

(E.B. White, "Walden")

• "Behind the phony tinsel of Hollywood lies the real tinsel."

(Oscar Levant)

24

8/2/2019 b Ed Assinments

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/b-ed-assinments 25/38

• "Some people say that I must be a terrible person, but it is not true. I have the heart of 

a young boy in a jar on my desk."

(Stephen King)

• "Don't you dare use 'party' as a verb in my shop."

(Dylan Moran, Black Books)

Observations:

• "I am a serious little nerd. You see, I use verbs. Verbs are our friends. They help move

along our sentences."

(Steve Urkel in Family Matters)

• "A better way to recognize the verb . . . is by its form, its -s and -ing ending; verbs also

have an -ed and an -en form, although in the case of some irregular verbs these forms are

not readily apparent. And every verb, without exception, can be marked by auxiliaries."

(Martha Kolln, Understanding English Grammar , 1998)

• Among the formal characteristics of English verbs are that they typically:

a. may be made past in meaning by suffixing -(e)d as in walked, opened, said;

b. may be made into agents by suffixing -er as in doer, walker, knower .c. may be made negative by prefixing dis- as in disagree, disappear, dislike.

(Grover Hudson, Essential Introductory Linguistics. Blackwell, 2000)

• "Some verbs are recognizable by form because they have been created from other

parts of speech with derivational verb-making morphemes (falsify , enrage). Verbs are also

recognizable because of their ability to change form through inflection, by taking endings

that indicate third-person singular (eats), past tense (ate), past participle (eaten),

andpresent participle (eating). But in isolation, without a context, it is impossible to tell

whether words like dog/dogs and head/heads are nouns or verbs."

(Thomas P. Klammer, et al., Analyzing English Grammar . Pearson, 2007)

Pronunciation: vurb

Grammar Basics

•  The Basic Parts of Speech

•  The Basic Sentence Unit

• Basic Sentence Structures

Verb Terms

• Verbing

25

8/2/2019 b Ed Assinments

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/b-ed-assinments 26/38

• Irregular Verb

• Aspect

Verb Types

• Base Verb

• Auxiliary Verb

•

Linking Verb

QNO 5

Syntax - English sentence structure

Introduction: This page contains some basic information about sentence structure (syntax) and

sentence types. It also includes examples of common sentence problems in written English. ESLstudents who understand the information on this page and follow the advice have a better chance of 

writing well. [Note to teachers/advanced students]

Definition: Linguists have problems in agreeing how to define the word sentence. For this web page, sentence will

 be taken to mean: 'a sequence of words whose first word starts with a capital letter and whose last word is followed by

an end punctuation mark (period/full stop or question mark or exclamamtion mark)'. On the basis of this definition,

some of the sentences written by ESL students (indeed by all writers) will be correct, and other sentences will be

 problematic. Good readers (English teachers, for example!) can quickly see the difference between a correct and a

 problematic sentence.

Subject/predicate: All sentences are about something or someone. The something or someone thatthe sentence is about is called the subject of the sentence. In the following sentences the subjects are

shown in red. Note how the subject is often, but not always, the first thing in the sentence.

• John often comes late to class.

My friend and I both have a dog named Spot.

• Many parts of the Asian coastline were destroyed by a tsunami in 2004.

• The old hotel at the end of the street is going to be knocked down to make way for a

new supermarket.

• Sitting in a tree at the bottom of the garden was a huge black bird with long blue tail

feathers.

• The grade 7 Korean boy who has just started at FIS speaks excellent English.• On Saturdays I never get up before 9 o'clock.

• Before giving a test the teacher should make sure that the students are well-prepared.

• Lying on the sofa watching old films is my favourite hobby.

The predicate contains information about the someone or something that is the subject. The

26

8/2/2019 b Ed Assinments

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/b-ed-assinments 27/38

example sentences above are shown again, this time with the predicate marked in green.

• John often comes late to class.

My friend and I both have a dog named Spot.

• Many parts of the Asian coastline were destroyed by a tsunami in 2004.

•

The old hotel at the end of the street is going to be knocked down to make way for a newsupermarket.

• Sitting in a tree at the bottom of the garden was a huge black bird with long blue tail

feathers.

• The grade 7 Korean boy who has just started at FIS speaks excellent English.

• On Saturdays I never get up before 9 o'clock.

• Before giving a test the teacher should make sure that the students are well-prepared.

• Lying on the sofa watching old films is my favourite hobby.

Do a quiz on the subject and predicate.

Simple subject/predicate: As you can see from the example sentences above both the subject andthe predicate can consist of many words. The simple subject is the main word in the subject, and

the simple predicate is the main word in the predicate. The simple subject is alwaysa noun/pronoun and the simple predicate is always a verb.

In the following sentences the simple subject is shown in red and the simple predicate is shown in

green.

• My ESL teacher  speaks a little Russian.

• The young girl with the long black hair fell from her bike yesterday in heavy rain.

• At the back of the line in the cafeteria yesterday was a large brown dog with a yellow

collar around its neck!

• My friend and I are going on holiday together this year.

• Your mother or your father  must come to the meeting.

• Sitting in a tree at the bottom of the garden was a huge black  bird with long blue tail

feathers.

From the last three examples sentences above you will notice that the simple subjects and simple predicates can be more than one word.

Advice: To write strong, clear sentences you must know who or what you are writing about(subject) and what you want to say about them or it (predicate). Your writing will be moreinteresting if the subject is not the first thing in every sentence you write.

Do a quiz to identify simple subjects and predicates.

Sentence types: One way to categorize sentences is by the clauses they contain. (A clause is a part

27

8/2/2019 b Ed Assinments

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/b-ed-assinments 28/38

of a sentence containing a subject and a predicate.) Here are the 4 sentence types:

• Simple: Contains a single, independent clause.o I don't like dogs.

o Our school basketball team lost their last game of the season 75-68.

o The old hotel opposite the bus station in the center of the town is probably going to

 be knocked down at the end of next year.

• Compound: Contains two independent clauses that are joined by a coordinating

conjunction. (The most common coordinating conjunctions are: but, or, and, so.

Remember: boas.)o I don't like dogs, and my sister doesn't like cats.

o You can write on paper, or you can use a computer.

o A tree fell onto the school roof in a storm, but none of the students was injured.

• Complex: Contains an independent clause plus one or more dependent clauses. (A

dependent clause starts with asubordinating conjunction. Examples: that, because, while,although, where, if .)

o I don't like dogs that bark at me when I go past.

o She did my homework, while her father cooked dinner.

o You can write on paper, although a computer is better if you want to correct

mistakes easily.

 Note: A dependent clause standing alone without an independent clause is called 

a fragment sentence - see below.

• Compound-complex: Contains 3 or more clauses (of which at least two are independentand one is dependent).

o I don't like dogs, and my sister doesn't like cats because they make her sneeze.o You can write on paper, but using a computer is better as you can easily correct

your mistakes.

o A tree fell onto the school roof in a storm, but none of the students was injured,

although many of them were in classrooms at the top of the building.

Advice: Writing that contains mostly short, simple sentences can be uninteresting or even irritatingto read. Writing that consists of mostly long, complex sentences is usually difficult to read. Good

writers, therefore, use a variety of sentence types. They also occasionally start complex (or 

compound-complex) sentences with the dependent clause and not the independent clause. In thefollowing examples the dependent clause is shown in red:

• Although it was raining, we decided to go fishing.

• If it doesn't rain soon, the river will dry out.

• Because the road was icy and the driver was going too fast, he was unable to brake

in time when a fox ran into the road in front of him.

28

8/2/2019 b Ed Assinments

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/b-ed-assinments 29/38

 Note: Sentences can also be categorized according to their function. [More]

 Note: Independent clauses are also called main clauses. Dependent clauses are also

called subordinate clauses.

Do a quiz to identify clause types.  Do a quiz to identify sentence types.

Problematic 'sentences': To write a correct sentence, you need to have a good understanding of what a sentence is. Students who don't have this understanding, or don't take care, often include

 problem sentences in their writing. Native English speakers are just as likely to write problem

sentences as ESL students. There are three main types of problem sentence:

• Run-on sentences: These are two sentences that the writer has not separated with an end punctuation mark, or has not joined with a conjunction. (Click the following run-ons to see

where they should be separated into two sentences.)

o I went to Paris in the vacation it is the most beautiful place I have ever visited.o It's never too late to learn to swim you never know when you may fall from a boat.

o If you're going to the shops can you buy me some eggs and flour I want to make a

cake.

o I like our new math teacher, she always explains the work very clearly.

o He was late to school again, his bus got caught in heavy traffic.

Advice: It is helpful to read your written work aloud. When you speak, you will make

natural pauses to mark the end of your sentences or clauses. If there is no correspondingend punctuation mark in your writing, you can be almost certain that you have written a

run-on sentence.

• Sentence fragments: Fragment sentences are unfinished sentences, i.e. they don't contain acomplete idea. A common fragment sentence in student writing is a dependent clause

standing alone without an independent clause. In the each of the following examples the

fragment is the second 'sentence', shown in red:

o I don't think I'm going to get a good grade. Because I didn't study.

o She got angry and shouted at the teacher. Which wasn't a very good idea.

o He watched TV for an hour and then went to bed. After falling asleep on the

sofa.

o She got up and ran out of the library. Slamming the door behind her.

o I have to write a report on Albert Einstein. The famous scientist who left

Europe to live in the USA.o After riding my bike without problems for over a year, the chain broke. 40

kilometers from my house!

Advice: If your 'sentence' is a dependent clause, or it doesn't contain both a subject and a predicate, then it is not a proper sentence. You can often detect fragments if you read your 

writing backwards sentence by sentence, i.e. from the last sentence to the first one. You can

29

8/2/2019 b Ed Assinments

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/b-ed-assinments 30/38

usually correct a fragment by connecting it to the sentence before or after it.

Good writers, who have a full understanding of the sentence, occasionally choose to write a

sentence fragment. So you may see sentence fragments in the fiction or even some of the

non-fiction you read. As an ESL student, however, you should avoid fragments (exceptwhen writing your own creative stories).

• Rambling sentences: A rambling sentence is a sentence made up of many clauses, often

connected by a coordinating conjunction such as and, or, so.

o John usually gets up before 7 o'clock, but yesterday his alarm clock did not ring, so

he was still asleep when his boss called him at 10.30 to ask where he was and tell

him that he would lose his job if he was late again.

o Although the blue whale has been protected for over 30 years and its numbers are

increasing, especially in the North Pacific, where whale hunting has been banned, it

is still at risk of extinction as its habitat is being polluted by waste from oil tankers

and its main food, the plankton, is being killed off by harmful rays from the sun,

which can penetrate the earth's atmosphere because there is a huge hole in the ozonelayer over Antarctica.

Advice: A rambling sentence is quite easy to spot. You have almost certainly written one if 

your sentence contains more than 3 or 4 conjunctions. If you read the sentence aloud andrun out of breath before reaching the end of it, you have written a rambling sentence. If 

your sentence stretches over many lines of writing, you have certainly written a rambling

sentence and most probably a run-on sentence too.

Unlike run-ons or  fragments, rambling sentences are not wrong, but they are tiresome for the reader and one of the signs of a poor writer. You should avoid them.

Do a quiz to identify problematic sentences.

General advice: If you are not sure whether you have written a good, correct sentence, ask your 

teacher! And remember: The more you read in English, the better a writer you will become. This is because reading good writing provides you with models of English sentence structure that will

have a positive influence on your own written work.

Note: Good writing consists not only of a string of varied, correctly-structured sentences. Thesentences must also lead from one to the next so that the text is cohesive and the writer's ideas are

coherent. For information on these two important concepts, go to the Language words for

non-language teachers page and click on Cohesion.

There are links to more sentence identification and sentence building exercises on theWriting Index of this

website.

30

8/2/2019 b Ed Assinments

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/b-ed-assinments 31/38

1. INTRODUCTION

This assignment is based on the detailed analysis of sentence and its constituents fromdifferent points of view. The concept of sentence is important in the sense that all thelanguages combine them. In other words, speakers use sentences in order to communicatetheir ideas or thoughts. So, sentences have a decisive role within communication.

Generally speaking, there are lexical, morphological and syntactic between the differentcategories. This assignment has been done by using Radford´s and Ouhalla´s works.

2. The Sentence: definition of this grammatical concept with its main and generalcharacteristics from different points of view

 According to the traditional grammar, sentences consist of words, but not every string of word

constitute a sentence as we can see in the following example:

Lion cage this less in dangerous is the.

 A possible analysis is that if we look at this example we know the meaning of the individualwords, but the sequence as a whole does not make sense, so we cannot consider thisstructure a sentence. Thus, we can affirm that if a sequence of words is to constitute asentence, it must he meaningful, for instance:

The lion is less dangerous in this cage.

The network of relations between the words of a sentence is called its structure. There aremany different aspects that influence the structure of a sentence. A very important one is wordorder. The different order of the words in a sentence can bring by a difference in its meaning,

as in the following example:Did he say who he was?= Who did he say he was?

But a difference in word order does not always imply a difference in meaning. Sometimes itsimply entails a difference in emphasis:

John ran away //A way ran John .

In relation with the words, the structure of the sentence also depends on the individualmeaning of the words or word-groups making up the sentence; in the following example thedifference of structure is not due to word order but to the relationship between the words:

Peter was waiting for seven friends. //Peter was waiting for seven minutes.

Then this kind of Grammar deals with the concept of Ambiguous sentences and explains that

the structure of sentences is not always unambiguously derivable from overt marks like wordorder, lexical items etc... Sometimes we come across sentences to which more than onestructure can he assigned, having therefore, more than one meaning. This type of sentencereceives the name of Ambiguous Sentence, as in the following examples:

George likes Susan more than Joan // Visiting relatives can be boring.

Only through the context in which these sentences may appear can we know which of the twopossible meanings is intended.

31

8/2/2019 b Ed Assinments

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/b-ed-assinments 32/38

 According to the Transformational Grammar, it deals with the idea that a sentence has asyntactic structure, and it follows this term in order to develop its theory.

The first important point deals with the idea that the evidence for claiming that sentences havea syntactic structure in language comes from the native speaker's intuition about the structureof sentences in his language. These structural intuitions which native speakers have about theSyntax of their languages are two types:

1. The constituents: 

intuitions about how sound-sequences in sentences are structured into larger structuralunits.

2. Categories: 

intuitions about whether structural units belong to the same category or not. So, the followingexample is going to illustrate this fact:

This pupil must seem incredibly intelligent to that teacher.

To analyse the concept of sentence we can do the following analysis: words are grouped intolower constituents. For example “incredibly" modifies "intelligent”, so the sequence [ incredibly

intelligent] is a phrasal constituent of the sentence. Also, following the analysis, 'this" modifies"pupil", so the sequence [that pupil] forms a single structural unit, a constituent of thesentence. The same happens in the sequence [that teacher]. But furthermore also thesequence [to that teacher] is another constituent. To the transformational grammar, thephrases [incredibly intelligent] and [to that teacher] both modify "seem”, then the wholesequence [seem incredibly intelligent to that teacher] is also a constituent.

Thus, all this information can he represented as we see before in diagrammatic form, that is atree diagram. Each point in the tree is called a node, and each node represents a constituent.But, however, since nodes are predictable, later they were suppressed in subsequent tree-diagrams. But a tree-diagram does not provide any representation of our intuitions about whichconstituents are constituents of the same type. The traditional way of describing the similaritiesand differences between constituents is to say that they belong to categories of various types.

 And the same happens with the phrases. Finally, to this type of grammar, the whole sequence[that pupil must seem incredibly intelligent to that teacher] is a special type of constituenttraditionally termed a clause or sentence.

3. conventions to Be used in the analysis of a sentence, the constituentsaNd its levels

Every sentence can he analysed at four distinct form levels: the word-level, the phrase-level,the clause-level and the sentence- level. And this is called the rank scale. Later, after theexplanation of the constituents of a sentence we will see the different levels and how they canhe analysed following the same example.

Then, following the example mentioned before:

"This pupil must seem incredibly intelligent to the teacher" 

We can represent the categorical constituent structure of the sentence in terms of labelled treediagram below:

Thus, a diagram as this provides a visual presentation of the categorial constituent structure of the sentence. It shows us how sentence is structured out of its constituent phrases, and howeach of the phrases is structured out of its component words, and also it provides a visualpresentation of the phrase structure of sentence. The type of labelled tree- diagram used hereis referred to as a Phrase-marker (P-marker) because it marks the hierarchical grouping of words into phrases, and phrases into sentences.

32

8/2/2019 b Ed Assinments

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/b-ed-assinments 33/38

 Another method of visual display used in the linguistic literature is to make use of labelledbracketing. Within this system, we could represent the categorial status of the words in thestructure mentioned before as in the following example:

[D This] [N pupil] [M must] [V seem] [Adv incredibly] [A intelligent] [P to]

[D that] [N teacher]

We could use this system of labelled bracketing to represent the fact that [this pupil] and [thatteacher] are noun phrases, that [to that teacher] is a prepositional phrase. That [incrediblyintelligent] is an adjective phrase, that [seem incredibly intelligent to that teacher] is a verbphrase, and that [this pupil must seem incredibly intelligent to that teacher] is an "S" = clause.

 As follows:

[S [NP [D this] [N pupil]] [M must] [VP [V seem] [AP [ADV incredibly][A intelligent]] [PP [P to][NP [D that] [N teacher] ] ] ] ]

Then the two diagrams represented here contain the same information. Many linguists prefer tree-diagrams as a form of visual representation of syntactic structure because they are easier to read, and the reason for that is that the information they contain is less condensed.

Thus, diagrams like these provide a virtually complete representation of the syntactic structure

of the sentence.

 Also we can find partial tree-diagrams or partial labelled bracketings: for instance if we take thesentence mentioned before, we can see that it contains three major constituents:

1. The noun phrase [this pupil].

2. A modal auxiliary verb [must].

3. A verb Phrase [seem incredibly intelligent to that teacher].

Then in place of the full tree-diagram, we also can have the partial P-maker, that follows thisscheme:

This pupil must seem incredibly intelligent to that teacher.

In this type of diagrams it is quite common to use a “triangle" to represent constituents with acomplex internal structure. Also in place of the detailed labelled bracketing, we can have thepartial bracketing as we can see in the following example:

[S [NP this pupil] [M must] [VP seem incredibly intelligent to that teacher]]

Linguists tend to use labelled tree diagrams for a full representation of the syntactic structureof a sentence, and labelled bracketings for partial representation of structure. But bothsystems of representation are equivalent.

In relation with the constituents, we speak of constituents to refer to the different parts in whicha sentence can be divided, as we have seen before. Constituents can be regarded aselements that play a role in larger structures or can also be looked upon as linguistic units intheir own right. So we can say that sentences are built up out of sets of constituents, each of 

which belongs to a specific category. And as we have seen before this categorial constituentstructure can be represented schematically in the form of a Phrase-marker-labelled treediagram or labelled bracketing.

Then again, regarding the concept of constituents, if we consider the constituents of asentence as individual linguistic units we can speak of phrases, words and morphemes andtheir different types:

1 .Phrases: noun phrases, verb phrases, adjective phrases, prepositional phrases, adverbialphrases and so on.

33

8/2/2019 b Ed Assinments

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/b-ed-assinments 34/38

2.Words: Noun, verb, adjective, adverb , prepositions and so on .

3.Morphemes: bound and free morphemes.

These constituents can be regarded as elements that play a role in larger structures, and alsowe can look upon them as linguistic units in their own right, and as independent linguistic unitsthey have their own characteristics. For instance phrases do not resemble sentence, although

it is their natural function to serve as constituents of sentences; for instance in:

"Their grandmother takes the train " 

We see that all the constituents serve to form the sentence: [their grandmother], [takes] [thetrain]. Then we can distinguish different types of phrases:

1. Noun phrase.

2. Adjective phrase.

3. Adverb phrase.

4. Verb phrase.

5. Prepositional phrase.

Then a phrase can be identified on the basis of the word class membership of its mostimportant constituent; Thus, a noun phrase is a phrase which has a noun as its most importantconstituent, an adjective phrase is a phrase whose principal element is an adjective and so.The element that gives name to a noun phrase, adjective phrase or other phrases is the headof the phrase. The other elements in the phrase stand in a relation of dependency on, or subordination to, the head. This fact usually happens in the noun phrase, adjective phrase or adverb phrase. In these three types of phrases, the dominant element is that which canreplace the whole phrase without affecting the structure of the sentence, as we can see in thefollowing examples:

1. " She likes classical music" can be replaced by "She likes music = that is a noun phrase.

2. "Sarah is quite nervous" can be replaced by "Sarah is nervous" = that is a verb phrase.

Noun phrases can function as immediate constituents of sentences and immediateconstituents of other phrases. Sentence functions are typically realised by noun phrases arethose of: Subject, direct object, indirect object, benefactive object, subject attribute and objectattribute.

There are two sentence-functions that are less closely associated with the noun phrase, that of predicator complement and that of adverbial.

The only phrase type in which the noun phrase functions as a typical immediate constituent isthe prepositional phrase. In prepositional phrase the noun phrase is the usual realization of thefunction prepositional complement:

"opposite the parking". Also sometimes a noun phrase is found within another noun phrase,where it follows the head of that phrase in a function resembling that of postmodifier.

The adjective phrases as constituents of clauses and sentences, can only realise the functionssubject attribute and object attribute.

 Adverb phrases as constituents of sentences and clauses nearly always realise the functionadverbial. Three types of adverbial functions can be distinguished:

1. Conjuncts: they function as the connecting link between the sentence in which they occur and the preceding context.

2. Disjunct:

34

8/2/2019 b Ed Assinments

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/b-ed-assinments 35/38

they usually function as comment words, that is they provide the speaker's comment on thecontent or form of the utterance.

3. All other adverbs that are constituents of a clause or sentence function as adjuncts.

Then the most important idea is that the dominant element has been called HEAD and anyother element in the phrase depends on it.

Verb phrases and prepositional phrases do not have a head. In the verb phrase all theconstituents are always verbs and none of them can replace the others. In this type of phrasesall the immediate constituents are verbs. Every verb phrase has a dominant member, which isinvariably a lexical verb. The lexical verb is always the last constituent of the phrase. Other,subordinated, constituents precede the lexical verb, and invariably belong to the class of auxiliary, or "helping" verbs (either modal or primary). There is thus a one-to-onecorrespondence between function and category within the internal structure of the verb phrase.

When we consider the verb phrase as a constituent of the clause or sentence, the verb phrasecan realise only one function on sentence level, viz that of predicator.

The verb phrase exhibits a number of features that are not found in any of the other phrasetypes: aspect, voice, tense and mood. Another feature of the finite verb phrase is that it often

exhibits concord: agreement in person and number between the verb phrase and the subject.In the prepositional phrase the preposition, which is the dominant element, cannot replace thewhole phrase either. However, all the elements in the prepositional phrase depend on it. Thepreposition is said to govern them. Then, the structure of the prepositional phrase isdetermined by its two functions: prepositional and prepositional complement. The constituentrealising the former governs the one realising the latter. Both functions are obligatory and theyusually occur immediately after each other.

The immediate constituents of prepositional phrases that function on clause or sentence levelmay, under certain conditions, be found in different places in the clause or sentence, theprepositional complement occurring in initial position and the prepositional after the predicateor in final position.

 As an immediate constituents of the sentence or clause, the prepositional phrase usuallyfunctions as adverbials, either as adjunct, as conjunct or as disjunct. Less usually, aprepositional phrase may occur as subject, as subject attribute, as object attribute or aspredicator complement.

Then, we can see that within a phrase we can also find different functions, functions at thelevel of the phrase. The head is the most important one, but there are also others such as themodifiers.

Finally, as the most important idea in relation with the phrases is that they are usuallyconstituents of sentences but they can also be constituents of other phrases.

Then the following level in relation to the constituents are the words as constituents of phrasesand within them we can find the morphemes as constituents of words. So the morpheme is theminimal unit of grammatical description in the sense that it cannot be segmented any further atthe level of grammatical analysis. In relation with the words, we see how they form phrases,which in turn combine into sentences Then the structure of the sentence also depends on theindividual meanings of the words or word-groups making up the sentence. Then through thefollowing examples:

Maggie was speaking for two friends.

Maggie was speaking for two minutes.

35

8/2/2019 b Ed Assinments

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/b-ed-assinments 36/38

Here the difference of structure is not due to word order but to the relationship between thewords.

Then words can be grouped together into word classes. This can be done taking into accountmorphological, syntactic and semantic criteria.

1.morphological:

words that belong to the class of verbs generally take inflectional endings such as -s,-ing, .ed.

2.Syntactic: 

it has to do with the way words function in sentences and phrases. From a syntactic point of view, we can affirm that although there is not a one correspondence between functions andcategories like in the phrases, most categories have a typical function associated with it. Verbsare associated with the sentence function predicator, nouns with subject or direct object,adverbs with adverbial and so on.

3.Semantic:

this type of criteria is less reliable indicator of word class membership. We may distinguishtwo classes of words: open word class and closed word class:

-open word class:

the membership is unrestricted, that is, new words can be added. Within the class we havenouns, adjectives, adverbs, and verbs.

-Closed word class:

the membership is restricted, that is, it does not allow the addition of new members. We haveprepositions, conjunctions, articles, numerals, interjections, pronouns and quantifiers.

Then if we consider constituents as part of a larger structure we can establish a hierarchy of linguistic units. Morphemes function as constituent of words, words as constituents of phrasesand phrases as constituents of sentences. This hierarchy is called rankscale as we can see inthe following example:

"her friend has bought the house" 

the house

house

 Also in relation to the constituents of a sentence, we can observe that the subordinators for instance introduce clauses as constituents of sentences or phrases, as we can see in thefollowing example:

“That Peter is intelligent is obvious" 

In relation to the concept of clause as constituent of the sentence, clause is a synonym of sentence. Then in terms of the functions they can play in the structure of the sentences, wecan distinguish the following types:

a. Subject clauses.

b. Direct object clauses.

c. lndirect object clauses.

d. Benefactive object clauses.

e. Subject attributive clauses.

f. Object attributive clauses.

36

8/2/2019 b Ed Assinments

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/b-ed-assinments 37/38

g. Predicator complement clauses.

h. Adverbial clauses.

However, units are not always composed of units of the next lowest rank. A unit of a givenrank may function as a constituent of a unit of the same rank or even of a unit which is onestep lower down the rankscale. This is called rankshift.

Then after this explanation of the constituents of a sentence, we can affirm that the sentencecan be analyzed from four different levels:

1.The word-level.

2.The phrase-level.

3.The clause-level.

4.The sentence-level.

Then as a conclusion we can say that tree-diagrams are very useful to represent thehierarchical relations between the various constituent parts of a sentence.

Then in relation with the semantic analysis of a sentence, we look at its meaning:

1. The thematic role or participant role.

2. Predicates and their elements.

When we talk about the thematic structure, we deal with the argument of the structure. For instance in relation to the argument: NP, and the thematic role, for instance we can say agent.To illustrate this we can see the following example:

“ Sheila sent a letter” 

Then we can represent its thematic structure and its argument through the following way:

[1 NP, Agent, 2 NP, Theme]

Or for instance another example could be:

" Anthony puts the fish on the fridge" = puts (verb)

[1 NP, Agent, 2 NP, Theme , 3 PP, Goal ]

Then this is what is called the thematic structure of the preposition. Then following thisanalysis , also we can make representations through these tree-diagrams or labelledbracketing not only the representations of sentences, but also analysis of the constituents of the sentences, for instance of the phrases which are the most common ones, as we can see inthe following examples:

“A window and a key"= [NP[NP a window] and [NP a key] ]

NP

NP NP

 A window and a key

“ intelligent and serious" = [AP[AP intelligent] and [ AP serious] ]

 AP 

 AP AP

Intelligent and serious

37

8/2/2019 b Ed Assinments

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/b-ed-assinments 38/38

Then as a conclusion to this point, there is a hierarchical order and two words (for example:key and window or intelligent and serious) can be grouped together in order to form a phrase.In the case of “a window and a key”, both of them form a noun phrase. However, in the case of “intelligent and serious”, both of them form an adjective phrase because the two heads( intelligent and serious) are adjectives.

38