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Transcript of AYO
IMPACT OF EDUCATION ON THE PRODUCTION AND USE OF HERBAL DECOCTIONS AND
CONCOCTIONS BY NIGERIANS
(A CASE STUDY OF ONDO TOWN)
A RESEARCH PROJECT
SUBMITTED TO
BIOLOGY DEPARTMENT,OBAFEMI AWOLOWO UNIVERSITY,
ADEYEMI COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, ONDO, ONDO STATE
BY
AKINLOSOTU AYOKUNLE OLALEKAN050584D
IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF A BACHELOR OF SCIENCE
IN BIOLOGY EDUCATION (B.Sc ED)
FEBRUARY, 2010
1
CERTIFICATION
This is to certify that this research project was carried out by Akinlosotu
Ayokunle Olalekan and submitted to the department of Biology, Obafemi
Awolowo University, Adeyemi College of Education, Ondo, Ondo state.
……………………Adenegan-Alakinde T.A.Supervisor
……………………….Dr. Femi OlajuiyegbeHead of Department
2
DEDICATION
This project work is dedicated to God Almighty who is the giver of all
wisdom and excellence. And to the memory of my loving mother Mrs.
Florence Olufunke Akinlosotu.
3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I wish to express my profound gratitude to my father Mr. S.A Akinlosotu
and siblings Mr. Olarewaju Akinmade , Mrs. Caroline Arowosebe and
Mrs. Victoria Adetoyinbo who have contributed immensely to the
successful completion of my studies.
Much thanks to my supervisor, Mrs. Adenegan-Alakinde whose useful
advice and constructive criticism has contributed in no small measure to
the success of this research project.
Space and time will fail me to mention everyone that has been there for
me in one way or the other, however, I must acknowledge my Head of
Department, Dr. Femi Olajuyigbe for his fatherly advice and role in my
studentship, Mr. Ilori, Mr. Sanni, Mr. Sabejeje, Dr. (Mrs) Oni, Mrs.
Akinkuolie, Mr. Olaniyan, Mrs Awe Dr (Mrs) Ayoola, Mrs. Adebola.
There is no self-made man on earth. In my journey so far , I have met
individuals who have helped in building a destiny. I greatly appreciate
Olatunde Folarin Ferdinand, Adeoye Tobi, Abesin Temitope, Winney
Ben-Abba and of course my best friend, Pelemo Toluwalope Omotola.
4
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
TITLE PAGE. . . . . . . . . i
CERTIFICATION. . . . . . . . ii
DEDICATION. . . . . . . . . iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT. . . . . . . iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS. . . . . . . v-vi
ABSTRACT. . . . . . . . . vii
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . 1
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY. . . . . 2
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM. . . .
1.3 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY.. . . . . 1
1.4 SCOPE AND LIMITATION OF THE STUDY. . .
1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY. . . . .
1.6 RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESIS. . .
1.7 DEFINITION OF TERMS. . . . . .
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 REVIEW OF RELEVANT LITERATURE.. . .
2.1 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE OF HERBAL DECOCTION.
2.2 HEALTH EFFECTS OF HERBAL DECOCTION. . .
2.3 SOCIAL EFFECTS OF HERBAL DECOCTIONS. .
2.4 EDUCATIONAL PATTERNS AND HERBAL
DECOCTION CONSUMPTION AMONG NIGERIANS. .
5
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY. . . . .
3.1 STUDY AREA. . . . . . . .
3.2 DESIGN OF THE STUDY METHOD. . . .
3.3 THE STUDY SAMPLE.. . . . . .
3.4 SAMPLING TECHNIQUE. . . . . .
3.5 DESCRIPTION OF RESEARCH INSTRUMENT. . .
3.6 FORMULATION OF HYPOTHESIS. . .. . .
3.7 METHOD OF DATA ANALYSIS. . . . .
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 RESULTS PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION. .
4.1 RESULT OF RESEARCH STUDY.. . . .
4.2 DATA ANALYSIS. . . . . . .
4.3 TEST AND INTERPRETATION OF HYPOTHESIS. .
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 CONCLUSION, SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 CONCLUSION
5.2 SUMMARY
5.3 RECOMMENDATION
REFERENCES
APPENDIX - QUESTIONNAIRES
6
ABSTRACT
Herbal trade has been on the increase in Nigeria in recent times not only
because it is cost effective but also because of easy accessibility and
reported efficacy. Herbal medicines may be dispensed in refined ways
by display in supermarkets and drug stores, and sometimes in hospitals
and by crude means involving hawking directly to customers in various
forms as ground powder, cooked decoction and concoction. The
business is branded “paraga” in the parlance of the consumers. This
complementary health care endeavour of the people encouraged the
present study with the aims to relate educational status of a consumer to
the knowledge and its safety. Well structured questionnaires were used
to elicit information from respondents. Five hundred (500) questionnaires
were distributed and four hundred and eighty five (485) were returned.
The result revealed that 70% of the total sample size are consumers, of
which 14% of them are educated. Data analysis of responses were done
using simple descriptive statistics. Recommendations were however
made that self medication is a risk of getting some complications. So , it
is important for one to consult one’s doctor and pharmacist before taking
herbal medicine.
7
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Herbal medicine - also called botanical medicine or phytomedicine -
refers to using a plant's seeds, berries, roots, leaves, bark, or flowers for
medicinal purposes. Herbalism has a long tradition of use outside of
conventional medicine. It is becoming more mainstream as
improvements in analysis and quality control along with advances in
clinical research show the value of herbal medicine in the treating and
preventing disease (Gillespie, 1997).
Plants had been used for medicinal purposes long before recorded
history. Ancient Chinese and Egyptian papyrus writings describe
medicinal uses for plants. Indigenous cultures (such as African and
Native American) used herbs in their healing rituals, while others
developed traditional medical systems (such as Ayurveda and
Traditional Chinese Medicine) in which herbal therapies were used.
Researchers found that people in different parts of the world tended to
use the same or similar plants for the same purposes.
Traditional medicine can be described as the total combination of
knowledge and practice, whether explicable or not, used in diagnosing,
preventing or eliminating a physical, mental or social disease and which
may rely exclusively on past experience and observation handed down
from generation to generation, verbally or in writing (Sofowora, 1982). A
medicinal plant is any plant which in one or more of its organs contains
substances that can be used for therapeutic purposes or which are
precursors for the synthesis of useful drugs. The use of medicinal plants
as remedies is common and widespread in Nigeria. Currently, the
society at large appreciates natural cure, which medicinal plants provide
8
compared to synthetic cure. The plants parts used in remedies include
the bark, leaves, roots, flowers, fruits and seeds (Sofowora, 1982).
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
The discoveries of the use of plant for food and as medicine began at a
very early stage in human evolution. The history of the use of plants
dates back to the time of the early man. The art of using plants to
enhance his health must have come to the early man in the most
unscientific way. Some people may want to believe that he used his
instinct to identify poisonous and non-poisonous plants while some
accept that there were external forces or invisible help guided him to
know what he could eat freely to keep fit. No matter which one is
accepted the truth is that the early man used plants in the raw form and
cooked form to keep fit. Since that time, the use/consumption of herbs
has been known and accepted by all nations on the surface of the earth.
(Kafaru, 1994). Herbal trade is on the increase in Nigeria in the recent
times not only because it is cost effective but also because of easy
accessibility and reported efficacy.
In the early 19th century, when chemical analysis first became available,
scientists began to extract and modify the active ingredients from plants.
Later, chemists began making their own version of plant compounds,
and over time, the use of herbal medicines declined in favor of drugs.
Recently, the World Health Organization estimated that 80% of people
worldwide rely on herbal medicines for some part of their primary health
care. In Germany, about 600 - 700 plant-based medicines are available
and are prescribed by some 70% of German physicians. In the last 20
years in the United States, public dissatisfaction with the cost of
prescription medications, combined with an interest in returning to
9
natural or organic remedies, has led to an increase in herbal medicine
use.
In many cases, scientists are not sure what specific ingredient in a
particular herb works to treat a condition or illness. Whole herbs contain
many ingredients, and they may work together to produce a beneficial
effect. Many factors determine how effective an herb will be. For
example, the type of environment (climate, bugs, soil quality) in which a
plant grew will affect it, as will how and when it was harvested and
processed.
The use of herbal supplements has increased dramatically over the past
30 years. Herbal supplements are classified as dietary supplements by
the U.S. Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act (DSHEA) of
2004. That means herbal supplements -- unlike prescription drugs -- can
be sold without being tested to prove that they are safe and effective.
Herbal medicines are used to treat many conditions, such as asthma,
eczema, premenstrual syndrome, rheumatoid arthritis, migraine,
menopausal symptoms, chronic fatigue, and irritable bowel syndrome,
among others.
Herbal treatment is one of the primary medicines used to treat HIV in
Africa. It is used more than standard treatment because it is more
affordable. Herbal treatment is more affordable but is not researched
and is poorly regulated. This lack of research on whether the Herbal
medicines work and what the medicines may pose a major flaw in the
healing cycle of HIV in Africa. Because the unprecedented epidemic
scourge of HIV/AIDs in Africa, has made herbal medicine to be
embraced by illiterates and the educated as an alternative curative
measure as well as to ameliorate for lack of funds necessary to access
antiretroviral treatment. Difficulties surrounding access to orthodox
10
treatment has also made a reasonable percentage of the both educated
and illiterates to patronize traditional means of health care delivery
system. Herbal medicines may be dispensed in refined ways by direct
hawking, displayed in supermarkets and drug stores, and sometimes in
hospitals and by crude means involving hawking directly to customers in
various forms as ground powder, cooked decoction and concoction. The
business is branded “paraga” in the parlance of the users. This
complementary health care endeavour of the people encouraged the
present study with the aims to evaluate the caliber of people that
patronize it, the trend of incorporation of the approach into health care
delivery with respect to the educational and exposure/awareness level of
consumers impacting on the trend consumption of these
herbal/medicinal decoctions and concoctions.
1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM
Herbal decoction and concoction consumption is a widespread
observable phenomenon among adult population in Southwestern region
of Nigeria, particularly in Ondo Town. The level of education and
exposure to the orthodox medical implications notwithstanding. Many
people irrespective of being aware of the dangers posed by these
mixtures which most often than not within our area of consideration are
poorly and unhygienically prepared still continue to patronize sellers.
These mixtures come in different forms with several coded names like
jembele, kaikan apetesi, 404, karugbojo, and, lately, paraga and so on.
Its sales and consumption has become the norm and in fact makes for a
curious sight if not found at any particular area in Ondo township and its
environs. They are even graded; to know if the one has purchased a
high grade, the consumer could pour a little on the ground and light a
match stick. If it burns with blue flames, then it is of a very high grade.
11
But if it does not, it is regarded as of a very poor grade. Such is the
profile of some of these drinks.
It is expected that the educated ones know better but as it is, there is
much left to be desired by the prevailing trend of and caliber of
consumers as it cuts across all strata, academics, illiterates, artisans,
drivers etc.
Through this study, an attempt would be made to look at this trend of
consumption of herbal decoctions and its corresponding relationship with
education.
1.3. PURPOSE OF STUDY
This project is basically to evaluate the extent to which education
impacts on the rate and pattern of consumption of herbal decoctions and
concoctions. Different classes of the society would be examined and
their culpability and or participation in herbal decoction and concoction
consumption highlighted.
1.4 SCOPE AND LIMITATION OF STUDY
This project topic although broad will be limited to what obtains within
Ondo Town. In an attempt to achieve the objectives of this study, the
researcher would consider what herbal decoction and concoction
actually is and the perception of the concept by some authors. The
various classes of users will be examined. Furthermore, the educational
impact on this trend of lifestyle would be put into consideration.
1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY
This research project is significant in highlighting if the level of exposure
and education of the general populace has a measurable and
12
observable impact on their behavioural trends especially as relating to
the production, selling and consumption of herbal/medicinal decoctions
and concoctions as well as briefly look at some of the attendant effects
this has on their health and social life.
1.6 RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESIS
In this research project, the following questions are posed:
1. Has the level of education been a determinant factor in the
consumption of herbal decoction?
2. What are the benefits of herbal decoction to the society?
3. Has the herbal decoction sector had impact on improving health
standard?
4. What are the problems associated with the production, sale and
consumption of herbal concoctions?
5. Should herbal decoction be accepted as an alternative to modern
medicine?
6. Is alcohol a more preferred solvent in the preparation of herbal
concoctions?
HYPOTHESES
I. Ho: Educational level has no significant impact on herbal
decoction consumption.
H1: Educational level has significant impact on herbal
decoction consumption.
II. H0: There is no significant impact in the refining and production
process with exposure to education.
H1: There is significant impact in the refining and production
process with exposure to education.
13
III. H0: Herbal decoction is complementary to unorthodox medicine.
H1: Herbal decoction is not complementary to unorthodox
medicine.
IV H0: Herbal decoction has no serious side effects on consumers.
H1: Herbal decoction has serious side effects on consumers.
1.7 DEFINITION OF TERMS
CONCOCTION: To prepare by combining raw materials e.g. a recipe
DECOCTION: Extract obtained by decocting or boiling
HERBAL: Of, Relating to, utilizing, or made of herbs
MEDICINAL: Tending or used to cure disease or relieve pain
PARAGA: Locally brewed gin or any class of herbal concoctions mixed
in it.
14
CHAPTER TWO
2.0. REVIEW OF RELEVANT LITERATURE
This chapter is a highlight of relevant literature and corresponding
primary source information relative to the scope of the research study.
Opinions, suggestions and ideas of various authors on the subject of
herbal decoction, methods, administration and dispensing as well as the
socio-cultural implications on the society will be discussed.
2.1. HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE OF HERBAL DECOCTIONS
The history of herbal decoction and concoction in Ondo Town and the
country at large pre-dates independence. It was such a boost that during
the colonial era, the resultant competition posed to the colonialists efforts
of introducing their brandy and gin into the country gave rise to the
official ban placed on herbal concoctions. Although the primary products
then were not targeted at health issues as in recent developments, it
was a large and booming business even as at then. Herbal decoctions
popularly referred to as ‘paraga’ was locally prepared and found in large
quantities in every nook and cranny of the country. It was and is still the
predominant occupation of a sizeable population of certain ethnic groups
in Nigeria. They include the Urhobo, Ijaw and Ilaje. It is revered by them.
It is egregiously consumed by these people and a large population of
other Nigerians across the country who have developed a special taste
for this drink (Wambebe C, 1998).
Herbal concoctions are popular among Nigerians wherever they
congregate anywhere. Over the years, these special mixtures have
assumed importance in many traditional ceremonies hosted by these
groups. It is difficult to come across any adult from these areas who
have never tasted the herbal decoction and concoctions before. Local
15
residents of several towns and villages in Nigeria usually prefer to drink
or administer this home-brewed herbs than any other unorthodox
medicine or any drink at that, be it beer, brandy, whisky or dry gin. They
are simply ‘addicted’ to it. In some instances, an occasion or ceremony
is adjudged incomplete without free flow of paraga, at least among the
local populace.
2.2 HEALTH EFFECTS OF HERBAL DECOCTION
The distinction between foods, dietary supplements, and drugs is
already being blurred by the burgeoning market in so-called functional
foods (such as cholesterol-lowering margarine), which aim to provide
health benefits beyond mere nutrient value. Moreover, recent advances
in molecular biology offer the possibility of using genetic profiles to
determine unique nutrient requirements, thereby providing customized
dietary recommendations to more effectively delay or prevent disease.
Safety and efficacy concerns must needs be addressed, as “designer
foods” fortified with herbs and bioactive substances continue to
proliferate. Some herbal supplements, especially those imported from
Asian countries, may contain high levels of heavy metals, including lead,
mercury, and cadmium. It is important to purchase herbal supplements
from reputable manufacturers to ensure quality.
In most developing countries, including Nigeria, the majority of the
populace lives in the rural areas, where the use of herbal medicines is
common. The consumption of herbal medicines in the urban areas is on
the increase, arising from the global inflationary trend, which hampers
the sustainable supply of orthodox medicines and reduces the
purchasing power of the populace. The Nigerian Government has
recognized the need and shown political will by approving and adopting
guidelines for the practice of traditional medicine. The regulatory
16
authority, the National Agency for Food and Drug Administration and
Control (NAFDAC), has also taken steps to protect the health of
consumers by drafting the 'Guidelines for the Registration and Control of
Herbal Medicinal Products and Related Substances in Nigeria'. Three
broad classes are defined in the Guidelines, and preparations will be
considered under four categories, each of which has its protocol.
Extemporaneous preparations are only to be listed and not registered or
advertised. Post-listing evaluation or monitoring is, however, mandatory.
Herbal medicinal products manufactured on a large scale, whether
imported or locally manufactured, must be registered and their
advertisement messages and scripts approved by NAFDAC prior to their
marketing. Homeopathic medicinal products must be registered and their
advertisement messages approved prior to marketing. Post-registration
evaluation or monitoring is also mandatory for both large-scale herbal
medicinal products and homeopathic products.
Extremely limited knowledge about the ingredients in some herbal
medicines and their effects in humans, the lack of stringent quality
control and the heterogeneous nature of herbal medicines all necessitate
the continuous monitoring of the safety of these products (Chan,
T.Y,1997).
2.3 SOCIAL EFFECTS OF HERBAL DECOCTIONS
One of the most noticeable social effect of herbal decoctions is the
issue of economic empowerment. Especially in a culture where poverty
is the order of the day, a discovery of a societal need is a promise of
economic relieve. A cross-section of Nigerians feed and live on the
proceeds of the sales of this drink. They do not know any other trade.
Apart from the brewers themselves, there are other middlemen who buy
17
and take the drinks to other parts of the country. This has been a major
source of income for traders plying their trade in herbal decoctions.
Besides the economic benefits derived from the production and sale of
herbal decoctions, there is also the question of influence, affluence and
respect as most of these practitioners are well thought of in society and
revered with high sounding titles like chief, doctor, prince and the likes.
Generally, producers and to an extent sellers are highly regarded in the
society irrespective of their educational status as they are seen to play
an important role in meeting the health and psychological needs of the
society.
As related to standard behavioral pattern (Howanitz et al, 1979; British
Pharmaceutical Codex, 1979), those who ingest herbal decoction
(paraga) would have a mild influence on stereoscopic vision and lack of
adaptation. While those who drink palmwine would be expected to
experience euphoria, disappearance of inhibition and prolonged reaction
time, those who ingested beer, ogogoro, and gin would undergo
moderately severe poisoning with greatly prolonged reaction time, loss
of inhibition and slight disturbance in equilibrium and coordination
2.4 EDUCATIONAL PATTERNS AND HERBAL DECOCTION
CONSUMPTION AMONG NIGERIANS
Nearly two-thirds of Nigerians consume herbs. Kunle, O. (2000) reported
that unfortunately nearly 70% of people taking herbal medicines were
well educated and had a higher-than-average income. These set of
people were reluctant to tell their doctors that they used complementary
and alternative medicine. Most respondents also provided that they have
been using herbal decoctions for quite some time and the art of herbal
decoction processing and production was acquired by training from
18
friends, neighbours, mothers, fathers or mothers- and fathers-in-law
through apprenticeships (usually a short period), mere observation and
hereditary induction to the craft and thus had the requisite knowledge in
plant identification, materials and methods of preparation and dispensing
of the right treatment for the right ailment.
Many herbs can interact with prescription medications and cause
unwanted or dangerous reactions. The herbs available in most stores
come in several different forms: teas, syrups, oils, liquid extracts,
tinctures, and dry extracts (pills or capsules). A level of education is
therefore necessary for a consumer to be able to communicate
effectively to a seller in getting the right treatment for a specific ailment.
19
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 STUDY AREA: ONDO
Ondo town, Ondo state, southwestern Nigeria, lies at the southern edge
of the Yoruba Hills (elevation 940 feet [287 m]) and the intersection of
roads from Ife, Akure, and Okitipupa. Ondo region lies within latitude
070,40N and longitude 040,80E. The town is about 30Km south of Akure,
the Ondo State capital. The town is a collecting point for cocoa and palm
oil and kernels, it is a local market centre (yams, cassava, corn [maize],
poultry, fish, fruits, palm produce, pumpkins, okra) and the location of a
branch office of the Federal Ministry of Trade. Wooden doors and
furniture are manufactured at Ondo. It also serves as the site of several
teacher-training colleges. Infact, the foremost teacher training college in
Nigeria is located in Ondo Town. It also has a good number of
secondary schools, a vocational institute, and hospitals. It has an
estimated population of about 1,457,300 (2006 Census).
3.2 DESIGN OF THE STUDY METHODS
The researcher administered a twenty-four question structured
questionnaire among the producers, consumers and sellers of herbal
decoction within Ondo Town. This was closely followed by oral
interviews to capture the responses of those who do not have formal
education and so could not fill out the questionnaire. The researcher
thereafter resorted to random selection process from the data collected
through the questionnaire instrument.
The specific areas covered within Ondo Town for the purpose of this
research study were selected relaxation spots ‘joints’ where herbal
decoctions are sold covering five prominent areas of the town namely:
20
Odosida, Surulere, Yaba, Oka and Valentino. Adeyemi College Road
(Rainbow), Oke-Isegun Street, Ebido Street, Oke-Odunwo and Road 3
respectively were places where the questionnaires were administered.
3.3 THE STUDY SAMPLE
The research sample will involve five hundred people made up of fifty-
two brewers, one hundred and eight sellers and three hundred and forty
consumers; men or women randomly selected and approached within
Ondo Town which is the area of focus. Thus the population is divided
into the categories consisting of:
- Producers (brewers)
- Sellers and
- Consumers
Recognition was also given to the principle of fair representation and
based on this principle, a sample size of five hundred on the proportion
of each group within the total population was chosen. A total of five
hundred questionnaires were distributed to the respondents at randomly
selected spots within Ondo Town. A breakdown of the four hundred and
eighty five returned questionnaires is as follows:
Table 1: Analysis of Total Population and Selected Sample Size
DESIGNATION OF RESPONDENTS
POPULATION PERCENTAGE (%)
PRODUCERS (BREWERS)
52 10.7
SELLERS 108 19.2CONSUMERS 340 70.1TOTAL 485 100
From the total population of respondents, the producers represented a
total percentage of 10.7% (52), sellers accounted for 19.2% (108) while
consumers numbered 340 (70.1%). The result showed clearly that there
21
are many consumers of herbal decoctions within Ondo Town, which is a
justification for the need of the research study.
SEX OF CONSUMERS
S/NO CATEGORY OF RESPONDENT
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS
PERCENTAGE (%)
1. Male 322 662. Female 163 34
Total 485 100Source: Field Survey, February 2010
It was found out that there are more male consumers than females.
From the result, 66% of the consumers were males while 34% were
females. This could be a result of the preference of alcohol as a suitable
solvent in the preparation of herbal decoctions (paraga), which is why
more males accounted for the highest number of consumers as against
females, given that males are taken into alcoholic and strong drinks than
females.
SEX OF SELLERS
S/NO CATEGORY OF RESPONDENT
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS
PERCENTAGE (%)
1. Male 103 212. Female 382 79
Total 485 100Source: Field Survey, February 2010
More females sell herbal decoctions than males. From the distribution
above, only 21% of the sellers are males compared to 79% of the
respondents who were females. Females are usually an attraction point
and represent a better marketing class than their male counterparts. This
most probably justified the number of females being more that sell herbal
decoctions (paraga) than males as they are likely to attract more
customers, perhaps for their feminism.
22
3.4 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
Questionnaires were distributed randomly to respondents in the area of
focus based on the sample size distribution. However, during the
process of distribution, some respondents rejected it while some
collected but did not return it and others collected and were also willing
to help if the need arose. Some of those that cooperated requested
more time to complete the assignment. The researcher later persuaded
other respondents to cooperate fully. At the end of the day, the numbers
of questionnaire returned by the respondents was encouraging.
3.5 DESCRIPTION OF RESEARCH INSTRUMENT
For the purpose of this research work, Ondo Town was solely
considered. The researcher chose the use of questionnaire and personal
interview to gather information, this is because experience has shown
that the above instrument happens to be the most appropriate when
collecting unique and exceptional facts. There were twenty four
questions to which each respondent reacted.
The questionnaires were divided into two sections. The first section
included the personal data of the respondents like the sex, the age and
educational qualification. The second section included twenty questions
to which the respondents reacted. There was also oral interviews to
collect further information that was not sufficiently catered to by the
questionnaires.
In designing the questionnaire, the questions were asked and drawn
from possible impact of education on the use of herbal decoctions. The
personal interviews were held with some respondents who were
illiterates and other consumers of herbal decoctions on whom it was
impossible to administer the questionnaire.
23
Questions asked were: names of plants that are commonly used to cure
a number of diseases, recipe formulation and method of administration.
The respondents cut across the social and educational strata of Ondo
Town.
3.6 FORMULATION OF HYPOTHESIS
In the course of this research work, some hypotheses were formulated
based on the findings contained in the literature review. These
hypotheses will be tested in order to ascertain their validity.
HYPOTHESES
I. Ho: Educational level has no significant impact on herbal
decoction consumption.
H1: Educational level has significant impact on herbal
decoction consumption.
II. H0: There is no significant impact in the refining and production
process with exposure to education.
H1: There is significant impact in the refining and production
process with exposure to education.
III. H0: Herbal decoction is complementary to unorthodox medicine.
H1: Herbal decoction is not complementary to unorthodox
medicine.
IV H0: Herbal decoction has no serious side effects on consumers.
H1: Herbal decoction has serious side effects on consumers.
24
3.7 METHOD OF DATA ANALYSIS
For this research work, the researcher employed the chi-square (X2)
method in testing the goodness of the various relationships between the
hypothesized variables as well as the five point-like Likert scale of
Agree, Strongly Agree, Disagree, Strongly Disagree and Undecided
instrument. Also, personal data in the study were analyzed using simple
percentages.
25
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 RESULTS PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION
4.1 RESULTS OF RESEARCH STUDY
Names of plants used for some of the various disease treatments are
presented in Tables A and B showing both scientific and vernacular
names (Hausa, Ibo and Yoruba), part of plants used, taxonomic family
names, reported chemical constituents and popular uses.
Table A: Plants commonly used for Herbal decoction preparations in Ondo.
BOTANICALNAMES
COMMON/LOCALNAMES
PARTS USED FAMILY
MALARIA (Iba)Enantia chlorantha
Awopa (Y), African yellow wood
Bark Annonaceae
Citrus aurantifolia Osan wewe (Y) , lime
Juice Rutaceae
Cymbopoqon citrates
Ewe tea (Y), Lemon grass
Leaf Poacease
Maqnifera indica Ewe mangoro (Y), Leaf AnacardiaceaeAzadirachta indica
Dogonyaro (H), Neem tree, Aforo-oyingbo (Y),Ogwu (I)
Leaf Meliaceae
PILE / BACK ACHE (Jedi / Opa eyin)Sabicea calycina Ogan (Y) Bark RubiaceaeLannea welwitschii
Orira (Y) Bark Anacardiaceae
Aristolochia albida
Akoigun (Y) Leaf Aristolochiaceae
Lophira lanceolata
Panhan pupa/funfun (Y)
Bark Ochnaceae
SyzygiumAromaticum
Konofuru (Y), clove Fruit Myrtaceae
TetrapleuraTetraptera
Aidan (Y) Fruit Mimosaceae
PEPPER SOUP: Control of menstruation.Capsicum annum Ata ijosi (Y) Fruit SolanaceaePiper quineense Iyere (Y) Seed PiperaceaeAllium sativum Ayu (Y) garlic Bulb Amaryllidaceae
26
Zingiber officinale
Ata ile (Y), Ginger Rhizome Zingiberaceae
SyzygiumAromaticum
Konofuru (Y), Clove Flower bud Myrtaceae
Ocimum gratissimum
Efirin (Y), Nchianwu (I)
Leaf Lamiaceae
Monodora myristica
Ariwo (Y), Ehuru (I) Fruit Annonaceae
Xylopia aethiopica
Eru (Y) Fruit Annonaceae
TONIC (Ogun eje)Sorghum bicolor Poroporo baba (Y), guinea corn Leaf Poaceae
ERECTION (Ale)SymphoniaGlobulifera
Ogolo (Y), Hog-gum tree Roots
Apiaceae
Carpolobea lutei Osun-sun (Y) Roots Polygalaceae
WATERY SPERM (Afato)SympholiaGlobulifera
Ogolo (Y) Roots Apiaceae
GONORRHOEA (Atosi)Citrullus colocynthis
Baara (Y) Fruit Cucurbitaceae
Allium sativum Ayu (Y), Garlic Bulb AmaryllidaceaeParinari sp. Abere (Y), Neou oil tree
FruitRosaceae
Table B:- Some drug plants used in Nigerian unorthodox medicine.
BotanicalNames
Family Part used
Constituents
Medicinal Uses
AlliumSativum
Amaryllidaceae Bulb Sulphur oils Vermifuge, intestinaldisinfectant,Vasodilator(arteriosclerosis),antibiotic,
Aristolochiaalbida
Aristolochiaceae Roots Leaves
Aristolochine Stomachic, tonic,fever (malaria),ingredients in guineaworm remedy, localanalgesic
27
Azadirachtaindica
Meliaceae Leaves,stem,seeds, rootbark
Margosa oils Bitter, anti pyretic,parasitic, skindiseases
Itrulluscolocynthis
Cucurbitaceae Fruit pulp Colocynthin,Citrullol,amorphousalkaloid
Purge (drastic, rarelyprescribed alone)
Cymbopogoncitratus
Poaceae Plants,Leaves
Essential oils Febrifuge
Malariateas, insect repellant,carminative(obsolete), source ofcitral for vitamin Asynthesis.
Enantiachlorantha
Annonaceae Stem bark,Roots
Berberine Fevers, sleepingsickness, malaria,dysentery
Lanneawelwitschii
Anacardiaceae Roots,bark,Leaves
N/A Wound dressing,dysentery
Lophiralanceolata
Ochnaceae Roots,bark,leaves,seeds
N/A Anti-viral,anti-inflammatory,fever, veneralinfections, jaundice,coughs
Magnifera indica
Anacardiaceae Bark, leaves
Tannin, resins
Astringent, skinleaves lesions, sore gums,diarrhea, piles
Ocimumgratissimum
Lamiaceae Leaves,roots
Febrifuge, colds,stomachic,carminative
Parinari sp. Rosaceae Stem, fruits,kernels
Parinariumsterol A & B
Purge, Diarrhoeaand dysentery, tonicwound dressing.
PiperGuineense
Piperaceae Fruits,leaves
Chavine,piperineCarminative,
restorative soup afterchild birth,embrocation forsprains, aromatic.
28
SabiaceaCalycina
Rubiaceae Roots N/A Wound dressing.rheumatism, panacea
Symphoniaglobulifera
Apiaceae Fruits,leaves,exudates
N/A Diuretic, wounddressing, venerealdiseases, stomachic,tonic.
Syzygiumaromaticum
Myrtaceae Buds,Volatile oil,
Volatile oil, gallotonic acid,Caryophyllin
Toothache, mouthsores, coughs,wound dressing.
Tetrapleuratetraptera
Mimosaceae Barks,fruits,wholeplant
Mimosine,saponin
Emetic, tonic,venereal diseases,fever, rheumatism,flatulence, jaundice,convulsions.
ZingiberOfficinale
Zingiberaceae Rhizome,roots
Gingerol,essential oil
Indigestion, coughs,stimulant, antimicrobialcarminative,flavouring agent.
4.2 DATA ANALYSIS
Since the questionnaire were designed to facilitate easy analysis, it is
necessary to follow the system as itemized in the questionnaire. The
method of testing the hypotheses would be based on Chi-square (X2)
tests.
29
TABLE A1: AGE OF RESPONDENTS
S/NO AGE GROUP NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS
PERCENTAGE (%)
1. Below 25 years 29 62. 25 – 34 years 121 253. 35 – 44 years 146 304. 45 – 54 years 170 355. 55 and above 19 4
Total 485 100Source: Field Survey, February 2010
Adults generally patronize and their religious beliefs (Islamic and
Christianity) is not a barrier. There are very few respondents that fall
below 25 years (6%), while 25% are between 25 – 34 years, 30% are
between 35 – 44 years, 35% are between 45 – 54 years and the
remainder 4% and from 55 and above. From the table as observed, the
highest group of consumers fall between the age group range of 45-54
years and 35-44 years respectively. This is probably because they are
the working class cadre and perhaps consume herbal decoctions to help
them cope with the stress and demands of their work places as well as
to serve as a stimulant and energy booster.
TABLE A2: MARITAL STATUS OF RESPONDENTS
S/NO
MARITAL STATUS NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS
PERCENTAGE(%)
1. Single 330 682. Married 82 173. Divorced 58 124. Widowed/er 15 3
Total 485 100Source: Field Survey, February 2010
Rate of production, sales and consumption cuts across the various
groups. Almost all categories be they single, married, divorced or
widowed/widowers. As can be observed in the above distribution where 30
about 68% of the respondents are single, about 17% are married, 12%
are divorced and 3% are widows or widowers.
TABLE A3: EDUCATIONAL QUALIFICATION OF RESPONDENTS
S/NO EDUCATIONAL
QUALIFICATION
NUMBER OF
RESPONDENTS
PERCENTAGE
(%)
1. WASC/GCE 215 44
2. OND/NCE 52 11
3. HND/B.Sc/B.A/B.Ed 34 7
4. M.Sc/M.Ed/M.A/PhD 34 7
5. No Formal Education 150 31
Total 485 100
Source: Field Survey, February 2010
Automobile mechanics, vehicle drivers, bus conductors, traders,
uniformed force and para-military force men and women, corporate
individuals and highly placed people in the society all use herbal
medicinal decoctions. Educated people cumulatively accounted for 69%
of the respondents under survey while 31% had no formal education.
SECTION B
The following analyzed data are the information collected by the twenty
four investigating statements of the five hundred questionnaires
instrument used for the collection of data, out of which four hundred and
eighty five were returned and deemed valid for the purpose of this
research study.
31
TABLE 4: RESEARCH QUESTION 1.
Has the level of education been a determinant factor in the
consumption of herbal decoction?
VARIABLES
S/N ITEMS A SA D SD U
1. Only uneducated persons consume herbal decoctions and concoctions (paraga).
112 44 267 53 9
2. Educated individuals, illiterates and artisans are usually the target consumers of herbal decoction.
180 52 78 97 78
3. Education is a key to mastering the art and craft of herbal decoction (paraga) brewing.
204 99 154 12 16
Source: Field Survey, January 2010.
From the data obtained in item 1 in the table above, 9% (44) of the
respondents strongly agreed to the statement that only uneducated
persons consume herbal decoctions and concoctions. Another 23%
(112) agreed, while 11% (53) strongly disagreed and 55% (267)
disagreed. 2% (9) of the respondents were undecided concerning the
statement.
From item 2, though the assertion covers almost all categories of herbal
decoction consumers, about 19% (52) of the respondents strongly
agreed, 37% (180) agreed and 12% (78) strongly disagreed. Another
20% (97) disagreed while 12% (78) were undecided.
Item 3 above shows that 20% (99) of the respondents strongly agreed
that education is a key to mastering the art and craft of herbal decoction
brewing. 42% (204) agreed while 2% (12) strongly disagreed. Another
32% (154) disagreed while 4% (16) were undecided if education had a
part in mastering the art and craft of herbal decoction brewing.
32
TABLE 5: RESEARCH QUESTION 2
What are the benefits of herbal decoction to the society?
VARIABLES
S/N ITEMS A SA D SD U
4. The business of medicinal herb selling is an alternative source of income for the educated.
165 44 190 33 53
5. Consumption of herbal decoctions is dependent on mood swings among the educated.
40 23 102 17
8
14
2
6. Viability of herbal decoction 184 97 73 34 97
Source: Field Survey, January 2010.
Although any method or means of sustaining or alternating one’s income
is desirable within reasonable limits, from item 4 in the table above, it
can be observed that a total of 43% (209) of the respondents agreed
that the business of medicinal herb selling is an alternative source of
income for the educated, while another 46% (223) disagreed. 11% (53)
of the respondents could not clearly make the difference either way.
Item 5 shows that a total of 13% (63) agreed to the use of herbal
decoctions being dependent of mood swings among the educated. 58%
(280) others disagreed asserting it was a deliberate decision while 29%
(142) were not sure as to the reason for the use of herbal decoctions
among the educated.
The business of medicinal herb selling which operates throughout the
day in Ondo Town is the only source of income to 60% (291) of the
sellers as highlighted in item 6 whereas the remaining 20% (97)
combined the business with other trade. 20% (97) however are not truly
into the business for any monetary derivation but to maintain perhaps a
cultural heritage and identity.
33
TABLE 6: RESEARCH QUESTION 3
Has the herbal decoction sector had impact on improving
health standard?
VARIABLES
S/N ITEMS A SA D SD U
7. Herbal concoctions are much preferred to modern medicine.
194 97 121 2 49
8. Herbal concoctions help maintain the health standard of the people.
280 65 92 48 -
Source: Field Survey, January 2010.
From item 7 in the table above 60% (291) said that they prefer herbal
concoctions to modern medicine (i.e. strongly agreed and agreed), 30%
(123) preferred orthodox medicine to the practice whereas 10% (49) of
the respondents was indifferent.
In item 8, it can be observed that 13% (65) of the respondents strongly
agreed that herbal concoctions help maintain the health standard of the
people while 58% (280) agreed. Only a total of 29 % (92) of the
respondents thought otherwise.
TABLE 7: RESEARCH QUESTION 4
What are the problems associated with the production, sale
and consumption of herbal concoctions?
VARIABLES
S/N ITEMS A SA D SD U
9. The government should be allowed to regulate and control medicinal herbal decoction production, sale and consumption.
198 12
0
56 33 78
10. The regulation and control of medicinal herbal decoction production, sale and consumption should be left to the trade union.
271 56 78 56 24
Source: Field Survey, January 2010.
34
From the harrowing experiences by certain people from the hands of
fraudulent and unscrupulous elements making merchandise out of the
lives of the citizens, it is evident from the above distribution in item 9 that
majority of the respondents; 318 (66%) would that the government
should be allowed to regulate and control medicinal herbal decoction
production, sale and consumption as against 18% (89) that disagreed.
16% (78) of them were indifferent.
Herbal practitioners also have a trade union that regulates their
activities. The resource herb-men and women responded that the
business facilitated increased sales of their herbal materials as such an
overwhelming majority as shown in item 10 in the table above,. 68%
(327) agreed that the regulation and control of medicinal herbal
decoction production, sale and consumption should be left to the trade
union. 27% (134) disagreed while 5% (24) were undecided whether to
leave the regulation in the hands of the government or the trade unions.
TABLE 8: RESEARCH QUESTION 5
Should herbal decoction be accepted as an alternative to
modern medicine?
VARIABLES
S/N ITEMS A SA D SD U
11. Herbal medicinal decoctions are the only curative solution to HIV/AIDS.
81 50 122 20
7
25
12. Herbal decoctions and concoctions are complementary to unorthodox medicine.
291 97 87 10 -
Source: Field Survey, January 2010.
Item 11 in the table above displays the assertion that herbal medicinal
decoctions are the only curative solution to HIV/AIDS with a distribution
of 10% (50) for strongly agree, 17% (81) agree, 43% (207) strongly 35
disagree, 25% (122) disagree and 5% (25) undecided about the sole
curative potency of herbal medicinal concoctions.
About its complementary role to unorthodox medicine as indicated in
item 12 in the table above, 80% (388) supported its assisting
significance while 20% (97) of the respondents did not agree.
TABLE 9: RESEARCH QUESTION 6
Is alcohol a more preferred solvent in the preparation of
herbal concoctions?
VARIABLES
S/N ITEMS A SA D SD U
13. Alcohol is a better solvent for herbal decoction than water.
200 91 34 10 15
0
14. Water is the most suitable solvent for herbal concoctions.
49 97 218 72 49
Source: Field Survey, January 2010.
On the response as to alcohol being used as a preferable solvent as
highlighted in item 13 in the table above, 60% (291) of the respondents
strongly agreed and agreed cummulatively. 2% (10) strongly disagreed
and 7% (34) disagreed while 31% (150) might use alcohol or water
depending on their mood as at the time of administration.
A total of 30% (146) of the respondents chose water as the most
suitable solvent for herbal concoctions, while a total of 60% (291) refuted
the choice of water and another 10% (48) said it made no difference
whatever solvent is used as shown in item 14 in the above table.
4.3 TEST AND INTERPRETATION OF HYPOTHESIS
36
Hypothesis I
Ho = NULL HYPOTHESISEducational level has no significant impact on herbal decoction
consumption.
H1 = ALTERNATE HYPOTHESISEducational level has significant impact on herbal decoction
consumption.
TABLE 10
VARIABLE POPULATION PERCENTAGEStrongly Agree 44 9Agree 112 23Strongly Disagree 53 11Disagree 267 55Undecided 9 2Total 485 100
The expected frequency is calculated by
Grand Total _ Number of Classification, which gives
485 = 97 5
This is however used to test the hypothesis
Table 11: One way classification of Chi-Square calculation
VARIABLE O E O – E (O – E)2 (O – E)2/EStrongly Agree 44 97 -53 2809 28.958Agree 112 97 15 225 2.319Strongly Disagree
53 97 -44 1936 19.958
Disagree 267 97 170 28900 297.938Undecided 9 97 -88 7744 79.835Total 485 485 0 41614 429.008
From the above interpretation,
37
E = Expected Value,
O = Observed Value.
. . . to get the expected value = Rate Total x Column TotalGrand Total
Using the Chi –Square statistic formula, X2 = ∑ (O – E)2
EX2 = ∑ (O – E)2
E = 429.008
Then to get the Degree of freedom = Number of rows minus one
= 5 – 1 = 4
The critical value of X2 with 4 degree of freedom at 0.05 significant level
is 9.49
Decision Rule
Reject H0 where X2 (computed X2) is greater than X2 0.05(9.49).
Interpretation
We will therefore reject H0 and accept H1 that Educational level has
significant impact on herbal decoction consumption.
Hypothesis II
H0 = NULL HYPOTHESIS
There is no significant impact in the refining and production
process with exposure to education.
H1 = ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS
There is significant impact in the refining and production process
with exposure to education.
Table 12
38
VARIABLE POPULATION PERCENTAGEStrongly Agree 99 20Agree 204 42Strongly Disagree 12 2Disagree 154 32Undecided 16 4Total 485 100
The expected frequency is calculated by
Grand Total _Number of Classification, which gives
485 = 97 5
This is however used to test the hypothesis
Table 13: One way classification of Chi-Square calculation
VARIABLE O E O – E (O – E)2 (O – E)2/EStrongly Agree 99 97 2 4 0.041Agree 204 97 107 11449 118.030Strongly Disagree
12 97 -85 7225 74.484
Disagree 154 97 57 3249 33.494Undecided 16 97 -81 6561 67.639Total 485 485 0 28488 293.688
From the above interpretation,
E = Expected Value,
O = Observed Value.
. . . to get the expected value = Rate Total x Column TotalGrand Total
Using the Chi –Square statistic formula, X2 = ∑ (O – E)2
EX2 = ∑ (O – E)2
E = 293.688Then to get the Degree of freedom = Number of rows minus one
39
= 5 – 1 = 4
The critical value of X2 with 4 degree of freedom at 0.05 significant level
is 9.49
Decision Rule
Reject H0 where X2 (computed X2) is greater than X2 0.05(9.49).
Interpretation
We will therefore reject H0 and accept H1 – There is significant impact in
the refining and production process with exposure to education.
Hypothesis III
H0 = NULL HYPOTHESIS
Herbal decoction is not complementary to unorthodox medicine.
H1 = ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS
Herbal decoction is complementary to unorthodox medicine.
Table 14
VARIABLE POPULATION PERCENTAGEStrongly Agree 97 20Agree 291 60Strongly Disagree 10 2Disagree 87 18Undecided - -Total 485 100
The expected frequency is calculated by
Grand Total _Number of Classification, which gives
485 = 97 5
This is however used to test the hypothesis
Table 15: One way classification of Chi-Square calculation40
VARIABLE O E O – E (O – E)2 (O – E)2/EStrongly Agree 97 97 0 0 0Agree 291 97 194 37636 388Strongly Disagree
10 97 -87 7569 78.031
Disagree 87 97 -10 100 1.031Undecided - 97 -97 9409 97Total 485 485 0 54714 564.062
From the above interpretation,
E = Expected Value,
O = Observed Value.
. . . to get the expected value = Rate Total x Column TotalGrand Total
Using the Chi –Square statistic formula, X2 = ∑ (O – E)2
EX2 = ∑ (O – E)2
E = 564.062
Then to get the Degree of freedom = Number of rows minus one
= 5 – 1 = 4
The critical value of X2 with 4 degree of freedom at 0.05 significant level
is 9.49
Decision Rule
Reject H0 where X2 (computed X2) is greater than X2 0.05(9.49).
Interpretation
We will therefore reject H0 and accept H1 – that herbal decoction is
complementary to unorthodox medicine.
Hypothesis IV
H0 = NULL HYPOTHESIS41
Herbal decoction has serious side effects on consumers.
H1 = ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS
Herbal decoction has no serious side effects on consumers.
Table 16
VARIABLE POPULATION PERCENTAGEStrongly Agree 120 25Agree 111 23Strongly Disagree 23 5Disagree 167 34Undecided 64 13Total 485 100
The expected frequency is calculated by
Grand Total _Number of Classification, which gives
485 = 97 5
This is however used to test the hypothesis
Table 17: One way classification of Chi-Square calculation
VARIABLE O E O – E (O – E)2 (O – E)2/EStrongly Agree 120 97 23 529 5.454Agree 111 97 14 196 2.021Strongly Disagree
23 97 -74 5476 56.454
Disagree 167 97 70 4900 50.515Undecided 64 97 -33 1089 11.227Total 485 485 0 12190 125.671
From the above interpretation,
E = Expected Value,
O = Observed Value.
. . . to get the expected value = Rate Total x Column TotalGrand Total
42
Using the Chi –Square statistic formula, X2 = ∑ (O – E)2
EX2 = ∑ (O – E)2
E = 125.671
Then to get the Degree of freedom = Number of rows minus one
= 5 – 1 = 4
The critical value of X2 with 4 degree of freedom at 0.05 significant level
is 9.49
Decision Rule
Reject H0 where X2 (computed X2) is greater than X2 0.05(9.49).
Interpretation
We will therefore reject H0 and accept H1 – that herbal decoction has no
serious side effects on consumers.
CHAPTER FIVE
43
5.0 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 SUMMARY
Some of the set back of herbal decoction consumption in Ondo Town
include problems of standardization, negative attitude of enlightened
people towards use of medicinal preparations probably because they
can afford the alternative method, lack of scientific proof of its efficacy,
problem of plant misidentification and unwillingness to share expertise
with people (Kunle, 2000; Sanusi, 2002; Sofowora, 1982). However its
advantages include the fact that it is complementary to unorthodox
medicine, it is relatively cheap, there is ready availability of raw
materials, it is a potential source of new drugs and of course, a source of
cheap starting products for the synthesis of known drugs. The sale and
use of medicinal preparations should be encouraged and supported by
government.
5.2 CONCLUSION
Used correctly, herbs can help treat a variety of conditions and in some
cases may have fewer side effects than some conventional medications.
But because they are unregulated, herbal products are often mislabeled
and may contain additives and contaminants that aren’t listed on the
label. Some herbs may cause allergic reactions or interact with
conventional drugs, and some are toxic if used improperly or at high
doses.
5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS
Taking herbs on ones own increases ones risk, so it is important to
consult a doctor or pharmacist before taking herbal medicines. Some
examples of adverse reactions from certain popular herbs are described
below.44
St. John's wort (a shrubby, perennial weed that has been used as
an antidepressant) can cause your skin to be more sensitive to the
sun's ultraviolet rays, and may cause an allergic reaction, stomach
upset, fatigue, and restlessness. Clinical studies have found that
St. John's wort also interferes with the effectiveness of many
drugs, including the blood thinner warfarin (Couamdin), protease
inhibitors for HIV, birth control pills, certain asthma drugs, and
many other medications. In addition, St. John's wort should not be
taken with prescribed antidepressant medication. NAFDAC has
issued a public health advisory concerning many of these
interactions (Chavez M.L, Chavez P.I, 1997).
Kava kava has been linked to liver toxicity. Kava has been taken
off the market in several countries because of liver toxicity.
Valerian may cause sleepiness, and in some people it may even
have the unexpected effect of overstimulating instead of sedating.
Garlic, ginkgo, feverfew, and ginger, among other herbs, may
increase the risk of bleeding.
Evening primrose (Oenothera biennis) may increase the risk of
seizures in people who have seizure disorders.
Currently, no organization or agency regulates the manufacture or
certifies the labeling of herbal preparations. This means you can't be
sure that the amount of the herb contained in the bottle, or even from
dose to dose, is the same as what is stated on the label.
The following recommendations are therefore put forward with the hope
that the concerned authorities and individual users will take necessary
action and be better informed respectively in the use of herbal
decoctions.
45
1. Some herbal preparations are standardized, meaning that the
preparation is guaranteed to contain a specific amount of the
active ingredients of the herb. However, it is still important to ask
companies making standardized herbal products about their
product's guarantee. It is important to talk to your doctor or an
expert in herbal medicine about the recommended doses of any
herbal products.
2. Herbalists, chiropractors, naturopathic physicians, pharmacists,
medical doctors, and practitioners of Traditional Chinese Medicine
all may use herbs to treat illness. Naturopathic physicians believe
that the body is continually striving for balance and that natural
therapies can support this process. They should be well trained in
at least a 4-year, postgraduate institution (e.g. Iris Medical School
of Traditional Medicine, Ogba, Lagos) that combine courses in
conventional medical science (such as pathology, microbiology,
pharmacology, and surgery) with clinical training in herbal
medicine, homeopathy, nutrition, and lifestyle counseling.
REFERENCES
Ababio, O.Y (1990). Organic Chemistry in: New School Chemistry, Africana-Fep, Publishers Limited, 1st edition, pp. 378-380.
46
Burkill, H.M. (1995). The useful plants of West Tropical Africa. Vol. 1-4. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. 960pp.
Chavez M.L and Chavez P.I (1997). Saint John's Wort. Hosp Pharm 1997 Dec;32:1621-8, 1631-2.
Chiej, R. (2004). The MacDonald Encyclopaedia of Medicinal Plants. MacDonald books, Sydney. 447pp.
Combest, W.L (1998). An overview of the medicinal uses of Zingiber officinale (ginger). US Pharm 1998 Feb;23:74, 79, 83-4, 86.
Dalziel, J.M. (1937). The useful plants of West Tropical Africa. The Crown Agents for the colonies, London. 612pp.
Gbile, Z.O. (1984). Vernacular names of Nigerian Plants in Yoruba. Forestry Research Institute of Nigeria, Ibadan.101 pp.
Gillespie, S.G (1997). Herbal drugs and phytomedicinal agents. Pharm Times, Vol.12, Pg.45-47
Howanitz et al, (1979). Effects of Herbal Concoctions on Psychological Conduct. British Pharmaceutical Codex, 1979
Heiligenstein, E and Guenther, G (1998). Over-the-counter psychotropics: a review of melatonin, St John's wort, valerian, and kava-kava. J Am Coll Health
Historical overview of herbal beverages production.http://www.drugs.Indiana.edu/publications/ncadi/primer/historic.htm 1992(accessed Febr. 14, 2010).
Isawumi, M. (1990). Yoruba system of Plant Nomenclature and its Implications in traditional medicine. Nigerian Field. 55: 165-171.
Iwu, M. (1993). Handbook of African Medicinal Plants. CRC Press, Inc., Florida. 435pp.
Kafaru, E. (2002). Immense help from nature’s workshop. Elikaf Health Services Ltd., Lagos. 212pp.
Kunle, O. (2000). The production of pharmaceuticals from medicinal
47
plants and their products. Nigerian Journal of Natural Products and Medicine. 4: 9-12.
Nwosu, M.O (1998). Aspects of ethnobotanical medicine in southeast Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Natural Products and Medicine. 4: 32-34.
Oliver, B. (1960). Medicinal Plants in Nigeria. Nigerian College of Arts, Science and Technology, Ibadan. 138pp.
Sanusi, S.(2002). Relevance and potential hazards of herbalism: Globalisation Biodiversity and Conservation - Proceedings of Botanical Society of Nigeria, Pp. 27-28.
Sofowora, A. (1982). Medicinal Plants and Traditional medicine in Africa. John Wiley and sons, New York. 251 pp.
The British Pharmaceutical Codex (1979), 11th edition. The Pharmaceutical Press, London, p14.
Wambebe C, (1998). Development and production of standardized phytomedicines, National Institute for Pharmaceutical, Abuja, Nigeria.
Wynn, R.L and Meiller, T.F (1998). A brief survey of herbal medicines and other remedies. Sanjay Amanpour & Sons. New Delhi, India.
APPENDIX
Biology Department,Obafemi Awolowo University
48
Adeyemi College of Education,P.M.B.520,Ondo,Ondo State.
Dear Sir/Madam,
I am a final year student of Biology in the above named institution. In fulfillment of the basic requirement for the award of a degree of Bachelor of Science in Biology Education (B.Sc Ed), I am expected to undertake a research work.
In compliance, Ondo Town has been chosen as my case study to highlight the impact of education on the production, sale and use of herbal decoctions and concoctions by Nigerians
I shall therefore by grateful if you can kindly provide the information required in the questionnaire below as candidly as possible.
I assure you that any information provided will be kept confidential and used solely for academic purpose.
Thank you for your anticipated cooperation.
Akinlosotu Ayokunle Olalekan
QUESTIONNAIRE
SECTION A –Personal information
Please tick () as appropriate in the space(s) provided below.1. Name: Chief/Mr./Mrs/Miss/Dr…………………………………………………..2. Sex:
(a) Male [ ] (b) Female [ ]
3. Age Group(a) Below 25 years [ ](b) 25 – 34 years [ ](c) 35 – 44 years [ ]
49
(d) 45 – 54 years [ ](e) 55 and above [ ]
4. Marital Status: (a) Single [ ](b) Married [ ](c) Divorced [ ](d) Widowed/er [ ]
5. Educational Qualification
(a) WASC/GCE [ ](b) OND/NCE [ ](c) HND/B.Sc/B.A/B.Ed [ ](d) M.Sc/M.Ed/M.A/PhD [ ](e) No Formal Education [ ]
SECTION B
Please read the following questions carefully and tick () as appropriate.
Key: SA=Strongly Agree, A=Agree, U=Uncertain, SD=Strongly Disagree and D=Disagree
S/N QUESTION SA A U SD D6. Only uneducated persons consume herbal
decoctions and concoctions.7. Educated individuals, illiterates and artisans
are usually the target consumers of herbal decoction.
8. Education is a key to mastering the art and craft of herbal decoction brewing (paraga).
9. How frequent do you consume herbal decoctions? (a) Daily
(b) Weekly(c) Fortnightly(d) Monthly
`10. How efficacious are these decoctions?(a) Very efficacious(b) Moderately efficacious(c) Not efficacious
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(d) Not worth taking11. These herbal decoctions and concoctions are
complementary to unorthodox medicine.12. These herbal concoctions are much preferred
to modern medicine.13. Alcohol is a better solvent for herbal decoction
than water.14. Water is the most suitable solvent for herbal
concoctions.15. Consumption of herbal decoctions is
dependent on mood swings among the educated.
16. Production and sale of herbal decoction is carried out by only educated people.
17. The business of medicinal herb selling is an alternative source of income for the educated.
18. The government should be allowed to regulate and control medicinal herbal decoction production, sale and consumption.
19. The regulation and control of medicinal herbal decoction production, sale and consumption should be left to the trade union.
20. Herbal decoction production is a viable business.
21. Herbal decoctions do not have to be taken in specific dosages.
22. Herbal concoctions help maintain the health standard of the people.
23. Herbal medicinal decoctions are the only curative solution to HIV/AIDS.
24. Herbal decoctions have no side effects on consumers.
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