Autor Desconocido - Roman Gods (Art)

7/28/2019 Autor Desconocido - Roman Gods (Art)

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Roman Gods

Major Gods of the Roman Pantheon (Dii Consentes)

Deity Origin Description

ApolloGreek

(Apollo)

Apollo is the son of Jupiter and Leto, and thetwin brother of Diana . He is the god ofmusic, playing a golden lyre. The Archer, farshooting with a silver bow. The god ofhealing who taught man medicine. The godof light. The god of truth, who can not speaka lie. One of Apollo's more important dailytasks is to harness his chariot with fourhorses an drive the Sun across the sky. He

is famous for his oracle at Delphi. Peopletraveled to it from all over the Greek world todivine the future. His tree was the laurel. Thecrow his bird. The dolphin his animal.

Ceres Greek(Demeter)

Corn Goddess. Eternal Mother. theSorrowing Mother. Grain Mother. Goddessof agriculture, grain, crops, initiation,civilization, lawgiver and the love a motherbears for her child. Protectress of women,

motherhood, marriage. Daughter of Saturnand Ops. She and her daughter Proserpinewere the counterparts of the Greekgoddesses Demeter and Persephone. Herworship involved fertility rites and rites forthe dead, and her chief festival was theCerealia.

Diana Greek(Artemis)

Fertility Goddess. Moon Goddess. HuntressGoddess. Triple Goddess- Lunar Virgin,Mother of Creatures, the Huntress orDestroyer. Goddess of nature, fertility,childbirth, wildwood, moon, forests, animals,mountains, woods, and women. Goddess ofthe hunt. In Roman art Diana usuallyappears as a huntress with bow and arrow,along with a hunting dog or a stag. Both avirgin goddess and an earth goddess, shewas identified with the Greek Artemis. She ispraised for her strength, athletic grace,

beauty and her hunting skills. With two otherdeities she made up a trinity: Egeria the
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water nymph (her servant and assistantmidwife), and Virbius (the woodland god).

Juno Greek (Hera)

Queen of the Gods. Jupiters wife and sister,sister to Neptune and Pluto, daughter of

Saturn, mother of Juventas, Mars, andVulcan. Protectress of the Roman state. Shewas the guardian of the Empire's financesand considered the Matron Goddess of allRome. The Matronalia, her major festival isMarch 1-2. Her other festival, on July 7-8,was called Nonae Caprotinae ("The Nonesof the Wild Fig"). The month of June wasnamed after her.

Jupiter Greek (Zeus)

Ruler of the Gods. He is the god of Sky,Lightning and Thunder. He is the son ofSaturn and brother of Neptune, Pluto andJuno, who is also his wife. His attribute is thelightning bolt and his symbol the eagle, whois also his messenger. He was alsoconsidered the Patron god of Rome, and histemple was the official place of statebusiness and sacrifices.

Mars Greek (Ares)

God of war, spring, growth in nature,agriculture, terror, anger, revenge, courageand fertility. Protector of cattle. The son ofJupiter and Juno, he was the god of war.Mars was regarded as the father of theRoman people because he was the father ofRomulus, the legendary founder of Rome,and husband to Bellona. He was the mostprominent of the military gods that wereworshipped by the Roman legions. The

martial Romans considered him second inimportance only to Jupiter. His festivals wereheld in March (named for him) and October.

MercuryGreek

(Hermes)

God of Trade, Profit, Merchants andTravellers. His main festival, the Mercuralia,was celebrated on May 15 and on this daythe merchants sprinkled their heads andtheir merchandise with water from his wellnear the Porta Capena. The symbols of

Mercury are the caduceus (a staff with twointertwined snakes) and a purse (a symbol
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of his connection with commerce).

Minerva

Greek (Athena)

Etruscan(Menrva)

Goddess of Wisdom, Learning, the Arts,Sciences, Medicine, Dyeing, Trade, and ofWar. Daughter of Jupiter, protectress of

commerce, industry and education. Honoredat the spring equinox with her main festival,March 19 - 23, called the Quinquatria. OnJune 13 the minor Quinquatrus wasobserved.

NeptuneGreek

(Poseidon)

God of the Sea. Brother of Jupiter, Pluto andJuno. The God and patron of Horses andHorse Racing as Neptune Equester.Neptunalia was celebrated on July 23. The

trident is Neptune's attribute.

VenusGreek

(Aphrodite)

Originally a Goddess of Gardens andVinyards, Venus became the major deity oflove and beauty after the influx of Greekdeities. On August 18 the Vinalia Rusticawas observed. A second festival, that of theVeneralia, was celebrated on April 1 inhonor of Venus Verticordia, who laterbecame the protector against vice. On April

23 a festival, the Vinalia Priora, celebratedthe opening of one of her temples.

VestaGreek

(Hestia)

Goddess of the Fire (both sacred anddomestic) and the Hearth. Daughter ofSaturn and Ops. Her sacred animal was theass. Patroness of bakers. Her chief festivalwas the Vestalia on June 7. One of the mostworshipped of the Roman deities.

VulcanGreek

(Hephaestus)

God of Fire, Blacksmiths and Craftsmanship.

His forge is located beneath Mount Etna. Itis here that he, together with his helpers,forges weapons for Gods and heroes.Closely associated with Bona Dea withwhom he shared the Volcanalia, observedon August 23.

...interesting Books!

The Gods of Rome by R. Turcan

Roman Myths by P. Matyszak

The Last Pagans by A. Cameron
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Did you know that the Romans had many gods and goddesses. Mostof these were the same ones that the ancient Greeks worshipped,except that they had different names. - The original religion of the earlyRomans was so modified by the addition of numerous and conflicting

beliefs in later times, and by the assimilation of a vast amount of Greekmythology, that it cannot be reconstructed precisely. Becauseextensive changes in the religion had already taken place before theliterary tradition began, its origins were in most cases unknown to theearly Roman writers on religion, such as the 1st century BC scholarMarcus Terentius Varro. Other classical writers, such as the poet Ovidin his Fasti (Calendar), were strongly influenced by Hellenistic models,and in their works they frequently employed Greek beliefs to fill gaps inthe Roman tradition.

Minor Gods of the Roman Pantheon (Di Indigetes)

Deity Description

Abeona Protector of children leaving the home.

AbudantiaGoddess of luck, abundance and prosperity. She distributed food andmoney from a cornucopia.

Adeona Goddess who guides children back home.

Aequitas God of fair trade and honest merchants.

Aera Cura Goddess associated with the underworld.

Aeternitas Personification of eternity.

Africus God of the Southwest wind.Alemonia Goddess who feeds unborn children.

AngeronaGoddess of Secrecy and protector of Rome. Festival Divalia or AngeronaliaDecember 21.

Angita Goddess of Healing and Witchcraft.

Anna Perenna Goddess of the New Year provider of food. Her festival is March 15.

Antevorte Goddess of the future.

Aquilo God of the North Wind.

Aurora Goddess of the dawn.

Auster God of the South Wind.

Bona Dea Goddess of fertility, healing, virginity and women. Festival May 1.

Camenae Goddesses of wells and springs.

Candelifera Goddess of childbirth.

Cardea Goddess of thresholds and door hinges.

CarmentaGoddess of childbirth and prophecy. Festiva Carmentalial January 11 and15.

Carnea Goddess of the heart and other organs, and door handles. Festival June 1.

Cinxia Goddess of marriage.

Clementia Goddess of mercy and clemency.

Cloacina Goddess of the Cloaca Maxima, the system of sewers in Rome.Coelus God of the sky.


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Concordia Goddess of agreement and understanding.

Conditor God of the harvest.

Consus God of grain storage. Festivals Consualia August 21 and December 15.

Convector God of bringing in of the crops from the fields.

Copia Goddess of wealth and plenty.Corus God of the North West wind.

Cunina Goddess of infants.

Dea Dia Goddess of growth. Festival in May.

Dea Tacita Goddess of the dead. Larentalia festival on December 23.

DecimaGoddess of childbirth. With Nona and Morta she forms the Parcae (thethree Fates).

Dia Lucrii Gods of profit.

Devera Goddess of brooms used for purification.

Deverra Goddess of women in labor and the patron of midwives

Disciplina Goddess of discipline.

Discordia Goddess of discord and strife.

Dius Fidus God of oaths.

Egestes Goddess of poverty.

Empanda Goddess of openess, friendliness and generosity.

Eventus Bonus God of success both in commerce and in agriculture.

Fabulinus God who taught children to speak.

Fama Goddess of fame and rumor.

Fauna (Bona

Dea)Goddess of the Earth, Mother Goddess.

FaunusGod of the wilds and fertility. He is the protector of cattle also referred to asLupercus. Festivals are Lupercalia on February 15 and Faunalia onDecember 5.

Faustitas Goddess protectress of herds of livestock

Favonius God of the West Wind.

Febris Goddess who protected people against fevers.

Felicitas Goddess of success.

FeroniaGoddess of freedom and good harvest. She was often worshipped byslaves to achieve their freedom. Her festival is November 15.

Fides Goddess of faithfulness and good faith.

FloraGoddess of Spring and the blooming flowers. Her festival Floralia, wasApril 28 - May 1.

Fontus God of wells and springs. Festival October 13

Fornax Goddess of bread baking and ovens.

Fortuna Goddess of fate.

Fulgora Goddess of lightning.

Furina Goddess of thieves.

Honos God of chivalry, honor and miltary justice.

Indivia Goddess of jealousy.

Juturna Goddess of lakes, wells and springs. Her festivals are January 11 and


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August 23.

Juventas Goddess of youth.

Lactans God of agriculture.

Lares Guardian spirits of the house and fields.

Laverna Goddess of unlawful gain and trickery.Liber God of fertility and nature. Festival March 17.

Libera Fertility Goddess.

Liberalitas God of generosity.

Libertas Goddess of freedom.

Libitina Goddess of funerals.

Lima Goddess of thresholds.

Lucifer God of the morning star.

Lucina Goddess of childbirth and midwifery.

Luna Goddess of the moon.Maia Goddess of fertility and Spring.

Maiesta Goddess of honor and reverence.

Mania Goddess of the dead.

ManesSimilar to the Lares, Genii and Di Penates. They were the souls ofdeceased loved ones. They were honored during the Parentalia andFeralia in February.

MatutaGoddess of the dawn, harbors and the Sea. Patron of newborn babies. Herfestival day is June 11.

Meditrina Goddess of wine and health. Her festival is the Meditrinalia on October 11.

Mefitas Goddess of poisonous vapors from the earth.Mellona Goddess and protector of bees.

Mena Goddess of menstruation.

Mens Goddess of the mind and consciousness. Her festival is May 8.

Messor God of agriculture and mowing.

Moneta Goddess of prosperity.

Mors God of death.

Morta Goddess of death and one of the three Parcae.

Muta Goddess of silence.

MutinusMutunus God of fertility.

Naenia Goddess of funerals.

Necessitas Goddess of destiny.

Nemestrinus God of the woods.

NonaGoddess of pregnancy. One of the Parcae with the Goddesses Morta andDecima, the Roman Fates.

Nox Personification of the night.

Nundina Goddess of the ninth day, on which the newborn child was given a name.

Obarator God of ploughing.

Occator God of harrowing.Orbona Goddess of parents who lost their children.


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OrcusGod of death and the underworld. Also a god of oaths and punisher ofperjurers.

Pales Goddess of shepherds and flocks.Her festival was the Palilia, on April 21.

ParcaeGoddesses of fate. The Goddesses Nona, Morta and Decima make up thegroup. The three Parcae are also called Tria Fata.

Pax Goddess of peace. Her festivals are January 3 and 30 and July 4.

Penates Gods of the storeroom and the household.

Picus God of agriculture.

Pietas Goddess of piety.

Poena Goddess of punishment.

Pomona Goddess of fruit trees and orchards.

PortunesGod of ports and harbors. He is the guardian of storehouses and lockeddoors. The Portunalia were observed on August 17

Porus God of plenty.

Postverta Goddess of the past.Potina Goddess of children's drinks.

Priapus God of gardens, viniculture, sailors and fishermen.

ProrsaPostverta

Goddess of women in labor.

Providentia Goddess of forethought.

Pudicitia Goddess of modesty and chastity.

Puta Goddess of the pruning of vines and trees.

QuirinusOld Sabine god with mysterious origins. Became very important as a figureof the state. His festival, the Quirinalia, was celebrated on February 17.

Quiritis Goddess of motherhood.

Robigo Goddess of corn.

RobigusGod who protected corn from diseases. His festival, the Robigalia, tookplace on April 25.

Roma Personified Goddess of the City of Rome.

Rumina Goddess of nursing mothers.

Sancus God of oaths and good faith.

Saritor God of weeding and hoeing.

Securitas Goddess of security and stability.

Semonia Goddess of sowing.

Sors God of luck.

Spes Goddess of hope.

Stata Mater Goddess who guards against fires.

Stimula Goddess who incites passion in women.

Strenua Goddess of strength and vigor.

Suadela Goddess of persuasion, especially in matters of love.

Subrincinator God of weeding.

Summanus God of night thunder. His festival is June 20.

Tempestes Goddesses of storms.

Terminus Terminus was the god of boundaries. Festival February 23.


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Terra Mater(Mother Earth) Goddess of fertility and growth. She was worshipped onApril 15 in the Fordicia.

Trivia Goddess of the crossroads.

Vacuna Goddess of agriculture.

Veritas Goddess of truth.

Vertumnus God of the changing seasons and the ripening of fruits and grains.

Viduus God who separated the soul and the body after death.

Viriplacaa Goddess of marital strife.

Virtus God of courage and military prowess.

Vitumnus God who gave life to children in the womb.

Volturnus God of the waters. His festival was the Volturnalia on August 27.

Volumna Goddess who protects the nursery.

Vulturnus God of the East Wind.

Gods of the Roman Pantheon Adopted From Other Cultures

Deity Origin Description

Asclepius Greek God of healing.

Attis Phrygian God of growth, fertility and vegetation.

Bacchus Greek (Dionysos) God of wine.

BellonaGreek (Enyo), orEtruscan

Goddess of war and battles. Herfestivals were celebrated on March 24(the Dies Sanguinis, the Day of Blood)

and June 3.Bubona Celt (Epona) Goddess of horses and cattle.

Ceres Greek (Demeter)

Goddess of corn, agriculture and grain.Festivals: February 2, April 1 and 11-19,August 23, September 1, October 4-5,November 8, and December 3.

Cupid Greek God of love.

CybelePhrygian (MagnaMater in Latin)

The Great Mother.

Dis Greek (Pluto) God of the underworld and treasure inthe form of gems and metals of theearth.

Endovelicus Iberian Celt Hispania The god of health and welfare.

Faunus Greek (Pan)God of the wilds and fertility. Festivalsare Lupercalia on February 15 andFaunalia on December 5.

Furies Greek (Erinyes) Goddesses of Vengeance.

Hercules Greek (Herakles)God of victory and commercialenterprise.

Isis Egyptian Goddess of the earth.
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JanusItalii, Latin orEtruscan (Ani)

God of gates, doors, beginnings andendings. He was worshipped at thebeginning of the harvest, the beginningof planting, at marriages, at births, etc.The month of January is named after

him.

Mithras Persian God of the sun.

Ops Greek

Goddess of the fertile earth, abundance,sowing, harvest and wealth. One of herfestivals was on August 10, anotherfestival was the Opalia, which wasobserved on December 9. TheOpeconsiva, on August 25 was herprimary festival, but was participated inonly by her priests and the Vestal

Virgins.

Salus Greek (Hygieia)Goddess of health and prosperity.Festival was celebrated on March 30.

Serapis Egyptian God of the sky.

Saturn Greek (Chronos)

God of agriculture and the sowing ofseeds. Saturnalia began on December17 and lasted for seven days. Duringthis festival, businesses closed and giftswere exchanged. Saturday is namedafter him.

Silvanus Greek (Pan) God of woods and fields.

Sol Greek (Helios) God of the sun.

Sol Invictus Syrian God of the sun.

Somnus Greek (Hypnos) God of sleep.

Tellus Greek (Gaia)Goddess of the earth. Fordicidia, heldon April 15 was her festival.

Veiovis Etruscan (Veive) God of healing.

Victoria Greek (Nike) Goddess of victory.

Imperial Cult

Some Gods of the Roman Imperial Cult (Maintaining deifiedstatus after their reigns)

Name Notes

Julius Caesar Imperator deified 44 BC.

Augustus Emperor deified 14 AD.

Livia Wife of Augustus. Deified years after her death by
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Claudius in 42 AD.

Claudius Emperor deified 54 AD.

Vespasian Emperor deified 79 AD.

Titus Emperor deified 81 AD.

NervaEmperor deified 98 AD, but little evidence exceptposthumous coinage.

Trajan Emperor deified 117 AD.

HadrianEmperor deified in 138 through the efforts of

Antoninus (hence Pius). The Senate wished tocondemn his memory.

AntoninusPius

Emperor deified in 161 AD.

Lucius Verus Emperor deified in 169 AD.

MarcusAurelius

Emperor deified in 180 AD

Pertinax Emperor deified 193 AD.

SeptimiusSeverus


ElagabalusNot deified, but viewed himself as the living SolInvictus. Was largely responsible for spreading theSyrian god's cult throughout the western empire.

SeverusAlexander


...interesting Books!

The Gods of Rome by R. Turcan

Roman Religion by V. Warrior

The Last Pagans by A. Cameron

Its important to note that by this time in Roman history, nearly everyemperor following Alexander was deified by the Senate as standardpractice. In reality, only a very few were not deified up to this point(Tiberius, Caligula, Nero, Commodus and various usurpers). Thepractice largely continued until the reign of Constantine in the 4thCentury AD. At this point the growth of the Imperial cult ceased as thestate religion slowly shifted to monotheism (Mithraism, Sol Invictus andChristian).

Roman Domestic Cult
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While Romans had always had major State festivals to gods like Jupiter andMars, nearer and dearer to most Roman families were a simple householdbased religion based around local and familial spirits. These local and familialdemons were the mainstay of Roman religion throughout all stages of its history,from archaic origins to the Christian era. The worship of these spirits is what

truly defines Roman religion, and what really separates it from the sister religionof Greek paganism.

Within the privacy of their homes each Roman family honored its ancestors andtutelary demons according to its own understandings. The venerablepaterfamilias was very much the high priest of his own household religion; hehonored his fathers and the gods of his fathers, and it was expected that hissons would honor his spirit and his gods when the time came. The paterfamiliasheld the power of life and death over his family and his servants. While thisbecame increasingly theoretical with the evolution of Roman society, it wasrooted in the religious taboo that the father was the link between the family and

its tutelary gods and ghosts.

Indeed, it was not so much the paterfamilias who was owner of the house, it washis deified ancestors and local spirits who were the real proprietors andguardians of the land. The family demons could bring woe to those whooffended them, and surely there was no greater insult than to lay a hand uponthe paterfamilias whose chief duty was to propitiate them. Outsiders were alsothought to invite divine wrath if they attempted to evict or harm a man within thepresence of his household familiars. These religious taboos rendered domesticlife and private property sacred centuries before civil law was accepted as asubstitute.

The residence of a paterfamilias was virtually a temple to the family gods, and ittherefore followed the house was itself sacred in some sense. The hearth whichcooked the family's food and kept them from freezing in the cold was Vesta.Vesta like her Greek counterpart Hestia seems to be a very ancient Indo-European goddess of domestic fire. The women of the house were charged withmaintaining Vesta's flames, and to let the flames extinguish was a disgrace.Small bits of the family's evening meal would be offered to Vesta's flames as anoffering. The revered temple of Vesta with its cult of Virgins was a publicoutgrowth of this private cult.

The household door, the veil between the inner sanctity of family life and theprofanity of the outside world, was also sacred. Janus was its name, and seemsto have been a very ancient Italian deity connected with beginnings andtransitions. The sons of the paterfamilias were charged with the worship ofJanus, though not much is known about this. Even parts of the door wereconsidered sacred: Forculus presided over the panels, and Cardea over thehinges. Limentinus was the threshold. The Greeks felt the Romans were a bitanal to find gods in so many small things, and later Christians made muchmockery of these petty gods. But to the Roman, no god was so meaningful andso self-evident as the gods of the house, small though they were.

The paterfamilias took delight in having the household honor his genius. The


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genius was a kind of spiritual double, often portrayed as either a snake or astately male in a toga and covered head. Somehow connected with the familyline, the genius imbued the individual with procreative and inspirational powers.The genius was a kind of tether to the family line which, through the act of

procreation, a paterfamilias was able to pass to the next generation. Every malehad a genius, and every woman had a similar double called a juno (not to beconfused with the deity of the same name) but the genius of the paterfamiliaswas central to the family cult and honored on his birthday. The Romans seemedto feel that because of the influence of a genius, an individual's character waswritten at birth which experience and education could only moderate.

Beginning with Augustus, the emperors would say that as the paterfamilias ofthe Roman race, their own genius was worthy of public veneration. This is whatconstituted the imperial ruler cult in the West, and over which early Christianshad so much controversy. In the Roman understanding the emperor was not a

god while alive, but as head of the public family his genius (spiritual essence)was worthy of rites. Most Christians did not seem to care about the distinctionand regarded the honoring of the imperial genius as tantamount to worshippinga god, an offense to their religion.

The Greek conception of the afterlife - the shadowy abode of Hades - was apoetic conceit adopted by some of the Roman literati. However, Roman religionper se did not recognize a specific dwelling place for the souls of the dead. Thesouls of the dead were deified in an aggregated sense and referred to as theManes. The Manes held power over the living and were a part of the world, thereal owners of the land.

The Manes were divided into two sects. The Lares were spirits that were helpful,so long as they were propitiated. Every family was thought to have its owntutelary Lar, called the Lar Familiaris, who was honored by the paterfamilias.The Lares were originally honored outside on the borders between farmingproperties. Later, as Rome lost its agricultural character, the Lares came insideand were honored in a special shrine called the Lararium. There were still more"public" Lares who were honored at the crossroads in the neighborhood wardsof Rome; Augustus set up special colleges for this. In any case the Lares weresouls of the dead (ancestors) who guarded a family or piece of land. There were

especially honored on the Kalends, Nones, and Ides of the calendar. The usualofferings were scraps of food or incense burned in their honor.

The Lares were also known as the genii loci - the spirits of the land. They werethought to particularly inhabit natural settings like springs and forest groves.Whenever the Romans cleared land for some earthwork project, they first madesacrifices to the genii loci. This does not mean that Romans were reluctant toclear the land, merely that they felt the spirits within first deserved a sacrifice toavert their wrath.

The Manes also had a malignant sect, an evil version of the Lares, called either

Lemures or Larvae. The Lemures were thought to be souls of the discontentedwho caused mischief and harm. There were throughout the course of the year


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several festivals (some rather bizarre in nature) designed to scare aware theLemures and avert their wrath.

Also of vital importance to a family were the Penates, the gods of the penus or

store pantry. These were the major gods most directly concerned with thefamily's well-being, and usually had some relation to the profession or interestsof the paterfamilias. For instance, Minerva was the patron of craftsmen, so acraftsmen would most likely honor Minerva as one of his Penates. Mercury wasthe patron of merchants, thus a merchant would be inclined to honor Mercury asa penates god. It seemed every Roman family had from two to eight patron orPenates gods, which they represented either by crude figurines or else bydrawing their likeness somewhere on a familial shrine. It was said the Penatesparticularly delighted in the smell of food and roasted meat.

Every family belonged to a clan, and these clans themselves had special patron

gods and corresponding rites. The Julian clan honored Venus and Apollo. TheNero clan, Bellona the war goddess. The Aurelians honored the sun. TheClaudians honored Hercules. The leading families of these clans wereresponsible for maintaining the shrines and rites for the rest of the clan. Whenone of these clans came to power they had a habit of enshrining their privategods in the State conscious by building public temples and/or issuing coinagewith the likeness of the relevant deities.

Beyond gods and spirits, there were religious rights to accompany an individualfrom birth to death. Men often kept the first trimmings of their beard in a box onthe family shrine. When a young man became of age, he traded in his child'stoga for an adult toga, and then went to the temple of Jupiter to offer sacrifice.Families kept wax funeral masks of their dead in their house. When a womanmarried, she formally left the protection of her father and his household godsand entered into the protection of her husband and his household gods.

This was the simple religion of the Romans that endured for centuries. Only thedeath penalty from the new Christian government formally ended it.

Turcan, Robert. _The Gods of Ancient RomeScheid, John. _An Introduction to Roman ReligionAdkins and Adkins. _Dictionary of Roman Religion

Hornblower and Spawforth. _Oxford Classical Dictionary

Republican era State festivals

These were festivals where religious officials employed by the State conductedpublic rites. Citizens were required to suspend business on such dates, but theywere not required to attend religious ceremonies (many did so, however, assacrificial meat was often given in such festivals). Because the ancient Romansdid not observe a "weekend" as moderns do, these festivals would haveconstituted the days of rest for the populace.

By the late Republic, many of the ancient festivals listed below had fallen into
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disuse, with the meaning of the festival and/or the deitiy to whom it wasdedicated obscured.

January

1. Festival of Janus, the two faced god of beginnings. Exchanging of lamps tofurnish light for the coming year

3-5. Compitalia. Observance day could be moved by order of the praetorurbanis. Celebrated the lares, or local guardian spirits, of the crossroads.Shrines were set up where crossroads met. Marked the end of the agriculturalyear.

5. Birthday of the shrine of Vica Pota, ancient goddess of victory.

9. Agonalia. Sacrifice of ram by rex sacrorum to uncertain god, possibly Janus.

11. Juturnalia. Festival of Juturna, river nymph and goddess of healing.

15. Carmentalia. Festival to honor Carementis, river nymph and goddess ofprophecy.

24-26. Sementivae. Offerings to Tellus and Cerus (agricultural goddesses) toprotect the spring sowing.

27. Festival of Castor and Pollux, Greek demigods who were patrons of cavalry,athletes and sailors

February1. Festival of Juno Sospita

5-17. Fornacalia. Celebration of grain ovens.

13. Festival to honor Faunus the rustic god.

13-21. Parentalia. Private and public ceremonies for the spirits of the familialdead. The 21st was the Feralia, when food was carried to tombs of the dead.

15. Lupercalia. Purification and fertility festival. Romans not certain to which godholiday was dedicated. Citizens gathered before the cave where Romulus andRemus were suckled by the she-wolf. A goat and dog was sacrificed. Two nobleyouths were smeared with the blood and ran through the streets. They whippedpassers-by with strips of goat skin, imparting fertility.

17. Quirinalia. Festival of the ancient god Quirinius, a sabine war god.

22. Carista. Renewal of family ties, offerings to familial lares.

23. Terminalia. Honoring the boundary god Terminus.


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25. Regifugium. Celebrated in honor of expulsion of the last king and founding ofthe Republic.

27. Equirria. Horse racing in honor of Mars.

March1. Festival of Mars

7. Festival of Vediovis, an underworld version of Jupiter.

9. Sacred shield of Mars carried by his priests, the salii.

14. Equirria. Another horse racing festival to Mars. Also the Mamuralia, whichwas a seperate festival in honor of the sacred shields of Mars.

15. Festival to Anna Perenna, goddess of the new year.

17. Liberalia, festival to Liber Pater, a god sometimes identified with the GreekBacchus

19. Quinquatra. Five day festival in honor of Mars and Minerva. On 23 March thetrumpets of Mars were purified.

31. Festival of Luna, goddess of the moon.

April1. Veneralia,festival of Venus Verticordia

4-10. Megalesia. Games held in honor of Cybele, the Phyrgian mother earthgoddess whose cult was brought to Rome during the 2nd Punic War.

5. Festival of Fortuna Publica, "luck of the people."

12-19. Ceriala. In honor of Ceres.

13. Festival to Jupiter of Victory and Jupiter of Liberty.

15. Fordicida. Pregnant cow sacrificed to Tellus to promote fertility.

21. Parilia. Purification of sheep for fertility.

23. Vinalia Priora. Festival of wine production in honor of Jupiter

25. Robigalia. Rust colored dog sacrificed to appease the god of grain rust.

28 April - 3 May. Floralia. Flower festival connected with Spring fertility.

May1. Festival of Lares.


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9. Lemuria. Festival to appease the spirits of the wandering household dead.

11. Sacrifice to Mania, a goddess of death.

14. Festival to Mars Invictus.

15. Festival to Jupiter and Mercury.


23. Festival to Vulcan.

25. Festival to Fortuna.

29. Ambarvalia. Sacrifices offered to agricultural deities to purify crops.

June1. Festival of Juno and Mars

3. Festival of Bellona, the war goddess.

4, Festival of Hercules.

5. Festival of Dius Fidius, Roman god of oaths sometimes identified withJupiter.

8. Festival of Mens, personification of mental activity.

9. Vestalia, festival of Vesta.

11. Matralia. Festival of Mater Matuta, goddess of growth and childbirth.

13. Festival of Jupiter Invictus.

19. Festival of Minerva.

20. Festival of Summanus, a god of thunderbolts associated with Jupiter.

24. Festival of Fors Fortuna, bringer of providence.

25. Turian games held every four years to underworld gods.

27. Festival to lares and Jupiter.

July1. Festival of Juno.

5. Poplifugia. Flight of the People. Meaning now lost.


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6-13. Games to honor Apollo

7. Festival of Pales. Juno worshipped on this day in honor of serving women.

17. Festivals of Honos (honor), Virtus (physical and moral excellence) andVictoria (victory)

19. Lucaria. Festival in a sacred grovde near the Tiber. Meaning lost.

20. Games held to honor victories of Caesar and goddess Victoria.

22. Festival of Concordia, goddess of concord.

23. Neptunalia. Festival for Neptune

25. Festival for Furrina, goddess of springs.

30. Festival to Fortuna

August1. Festivals of Spes (Hope) and Victoria.

5. festivals of Salus, goddess of health

9. Festival of Sol, god of the sun.

12. Festival to Hercules and Venus

13. Festivals to Diana, Hercules, Castor and Pollux.

17. Portunalia. Festival to Portunus, god of doors and harbors. Involved a ritualconnected with keys.

19. Vinalia Rustica. Another wine production festival

21. Festival to Consus , an agricultural god also associated with horses.

23. Festival to Vulcan

24. Festival to Luna

25. Festival to Ops, goddess of abundance and partner to Saturn.

27. Festival of Volturnus, an Etruscan river god.

28. Festival of Sol and Luna

September


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1. Festival to Jupiter and Juno

5. Festival to Jupiter

5-19. Games for Jupiter Optimus Maximus.

13. Festival of Capitoline Triad (Jupiter, Juno and Minerva)

23. Festival to Apollo

26. Festival of Venus Genetrix, Venus as mother of Roman people

October1. Festival to Fides (fidelity) and Juno

4. Fast day for Ceres

7. Festival of Jupiter and Juno

9. Festival to the public genius, Faunus and Venus.

10. Festival to Juno

11. Meditrinalia. Another wine festival to Jupiter

13. Fontinalia. In honor the god of springs

14. Festival of the Penates, domestic patron gods

15. Capitoline games in honor of Jupiter

19. Armilustrium. Festival of purification of arms in honor of Mars.

26 October -1 November. Sulla's Victory Games in honor of Victoria.

November

4-17. Plebian games in honor of Jupiter. The 13th was the great festival day andhighpoint of the games

December1. Festivals of Neptune and Pietas (Piety).

3. Festival of Bona Dea, the women's goddess. Celebrated only by women andVestal Virgins in the house of a Consul or Praetor

5. Festival of Faunus held in countryside.

8. Festival of Tiberinius, personification of Tiber river.


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12. Festival of Consus

13. Festival of Tellus.

15. 2nd festival to Consus.

17-23. Saturnalia. Merry making festival ot Saturn, the rustic god of seedsowing, later identified with the Greek Chronus. Sacrifice at the temple of Saturnfollowed by public feast and gift giving. Public gambling allowed. Holidaycostumes and caps adorned. Candles lit. Slaves were temporarily absolved ofduties. Master may have switched roles with slaves.

18. Festival of Epona, a Gallic horse goddess.

19. Festival to Ops

21. Festival to honor Diva Angeronae, goddess of secrecy.

22. Festival of the Lares

23. Larentalia, A funeral festival to an obscure goddess by name of AccaLarentia.

25. Midwinter solstice. Became prominent only in the third century whenAurelian consecrated his temple to Sol Invictus on this date

Cults Of The Imperial Legions

IntroductionThe religion of the early Roman soldier was not distinguishable from the religionof the average citizen as Republican soldiers were recruits or conscripts whoreturned to civilian life after their tour of duty. By the time of the empire thelegions had become a professional fighting force, the chief appendage of the

ever-expansive Roman State. The religion of the imperial legions was thereforemodeled on the State religion. While there is no doubt that many if not most ofthe soldiers sincerely believed in their divinities, the chief political effect of thearmy religion was to promote Romanization among the troops. This wasespecially important as Italians deserted the legions and provincials came toform the backbone of Roman military power.

ChristianityWhile there probably had always been Christians serving in the legions after themid first century, the number of open Christians seem few and far between.

Christianity was not quite compatible with the State religion, which no doubtencouraged some Christians to keep their faith hidden. Moreso, however, many
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of the legion recruits came from rural and backwater areas that were the lastreaches of the empire to experience conversion to Christianity. It has been saidthe Roman army was the last refuge of paganism. The traces of Christianityfound in the imperial legions are slim. The rest of this essay will concentrate on

paganism.

The Standards of the LegionArmies throughout history have found it vital to promote an esprit de corps, asense of pride and belonging to one's unit. In the imperial legions this took on aquasi-religious element which is perhaps unique even within paganism. Thevarious cohorts within the legion held their own standards, and the legion itself,since the times of Marius, was represented by an eagle. The fearsome andelegant bird of pray was a perfect symbol of the legion's fighting prowess; moreso it was the sacred sigil of Jupiter, King of the Gods and patron of the RomanState.

The Eagle was made of gold or silvergilt. It was mounted on a large pole with atapered point at the end which could be thrust in the ground. On the polebeneath the eagle were imagines, medallions featuring portraits of theemperors. The legion's eagle, along with the cohort standards, were housedwithin a small shrine in the legion's headquarters. The first cohort of the legionand in particular the primus pilus was charged with guarding the eagle, thoughthe day-to-day care was in the hands of the aquilifer. The aquila was consideredsacred and oaths were sworn by it. The legion felt the aquila embodied theirspirit and dignity; it was a kind of genius for the company of soldiers. The

standards were utilized in various festivals and ceremonies, in particular theanniversary of a legion's founding. To lose the aquila was the ultimate disgrace,and battles were fought merely to regain lost aquila.

Christianity often made baseless accusations of "idol worship" againstpaganism. However, there may have been some truth to it with regard to thepeculiar cult of the legion standards.

Gods of the StateJupiter, Juno and Minerva were a holy trinity constituting the Capitoline Triad.These trio of gods had been the patron divinities of the Roman Republic for

some five centuries, and the sheer weight of tradition continued into the empireeven when the Republic was a distant memory. Jupiter the Best and theGreatest was held in particular esteem. He was considered the special protectorof the Roman people. In Republican times he was the god of victoriousgenerals. Votive inscriptions and offerings to Jupiter and his two femininecounterparts were quite common in military installations.

Mars, the ancient god of war and mythological father of the Roman people, wasalso a divinity near and dear to a soldier's heart. In imperial times Mars hadbeen recast as the divine avenger of the Caesars, and troops marching to warfrom Rome would proceed from the temple of Mars.


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Hercules, the demigod of strength and protection, was honored by some.

Needless to say the soldiers honored the imperial genius of past and presentemperors.

In addition to these proper gods, a variety of personified divine traits were alsohonored. Victory, Discipline, Fortune, Honor, Piety, Virtue all had their cults. Thecity of Rome was also personified and worshipped alongside theimperial genius.

Gods of Private CultsOutside of the State religion existed an ever increasing number of private cults,most often composed or inspired by the cultures of Rome's subject peoples.Unlike the State religion they did not have as their central tenant loyalty to Romeand its gods. Nonetheless most of these cults were tolerated as they posed noovert threat to the social order. In some cases they were even encouraged ifthey promoted ideals useful to the social order. From the military standpointthere were two private cults of significance.

Jupiter Dolichenus was a god of Asia Minor and Syria identified with Jupiter. Hewas apparently a deity associated with iron and the military might that flowedfrom it. Jupiter Dolichenus was depicted as an axe-wielding warrior mounted ona bull, and much like Jupiter was capable of flinging lightening bolts. Hiscommunity of believers called each other "brothers." Dolichenus was anexample of a cult that was tolerated but not encouraged. It's rituals were

Oriental, its clergy were Oriental, and the majority of its adherents were soldiersfrom Oriental origins. In short, it was fundamentally foreign if benign.

Far more successful and acceptable to the Latin West was the cult of Mithras.Mithras may or may not have been descended from a very ancient Indo-Iraniansolar deity, but by the time the cult of Mithras came to Rome he is a Hellenisticsavior god with astrological overtones. Mithras himself was depicted as asoldier, invincible and implacable in battle, the slayer of demons. He promisedstrength and success to his followers in this world, and a special afterlife in thenext world.

His cult met in private for secret rites about which little is known. What is knownis that the cult was comprised of imperial officials. Soldiers of all ranks couldbelong, but it seems officers were more plentiful than rank and file. Also includedwere officials in the civil service, as well as prominent traders and craftsmen,and the educated slaves of the imperial household. In short, Mithraism was acult for middle ranking members of imperial society. While Romanatis was notstrictly speaking the point of the cult, in practice it seems the cult was fiercelyloyal to the personas and values of the imperial order. The members of the cultwere also fiercely loyal to each other. The opportunity for these officials to"network" may have been as strong a factor in recruitment as any purelyreligious sentiment. Contrary to popular belief there is little evidence for the

inclusion of emperors or senators; however, the ruling elite may very well have


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promoted the cult from behind the scenes given its loyalty.

Mithraism was a "foreign" cult that in many ways exemplified the spirit of Romeand its soldiers.

Other GodsAs Rome was composed of soldiers of many cultures, these soldiers oftenhonored the gods of their native cultures in their off-duty. However, throughoutthe empire there was a tendency to identify Roman gods with native ones,especially in the West.

Soldiers, whatever their nationality, often honored gods of whatever region theywere stationed. Soldiers in Britain made offerings to the genius of the province.Soldiers in lower Egypt honored a crocodile god that seems to have beenformerly worshipped by Egyptian soldiers. Other examples abound and are toonumerous to mention.

ConclusionsThe imperial military was arguably the section of Roman society most devoted toRoman paganism, and certainly it was the element of society where paganismsurvived the longest. In one sense, the devotion to the Empire's deities wasanother manifestation of a soldier's duty and service to Rome. In another sense,the cultivation of favors with numerous deities was thought to assist soldiers inthe constant dangers they faced in their profession, and in some cases wasthought to ensure a sound afterlife should they fall in battle.

The Roman legions faced innumerable dangers and brought WesternCivilization on their backs to new lands. Their travails were sustained in no smallsense by their sense of religious piety. Regardless of what we moderns think oftheir particular religions, we can at least honor what their religions meant tothese intrepid warriors.

Pontifex Maximus

The head priest of the Roman state religion was the Pontifex Maximus, or thegreatest of the college of pontifices. While an obviously important and prominentposition within the ranks of the Roman system, the Pontifex Maximus was notconsidered a magistrate comparable to a Consul, Praetor, etc.

During the Republic, the Pontifex was elected by the Comitia Tributa and servedfor life, while during the Empire, the position was generally held by the Emperorhimself.

Originally, the Ponifices were Patrician only, but the social conditions andchanges during the late Republic allowed for Plebeian election as well. These

men were responsible for the oversight of the state religious cult as a whole anddidn't really oversee particular godly cults, though they could if necessary.


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By the Imperial period there were 16 pontifices under the high priest, 15flamines, who were special priests of the main deities, and the Rex Sacrorum(king of the sacrifices) who performed the religious acts that the king had usuallydone. Perhaps most importantly, he was he was also responsible for the 18

Vestal Virgins.

The main duty of the pontifices was to provide the pax deorum, or the 'peacewith the gods'. Interpreting omens, sometimes through augures, controlling andkeeping the official calendar, and the oversight of funerals all fell under thedomain of the Pontifex Maximus.

He was responsible for an enormous collection of omens (annales maximi); thatwould be recorded and collected on a nearly constant basis. These heavenlysigns would be written down along with accompanying events, and used todetermine the divine favor of the gods. Doing so allowed following generations

of priests and magistrates to understand the historic will of the gods andinterpret future events against past patterns.

Today, the head of the Roman Catholic Church, the Pope, is still called thePontifex Maximus. It's a political or governing office that has been in existenceand in perpetual use for nearly 3,000 years.

Pontifex Maximus List

Roman Office of the Pontifex Maximus

Year Pontifex Notes

712 BC Numa Pompilius

The office was said to begin

during the tenure of the Kings of

Rome. However, very little

recorded evidence exists. This

name has been recorded as Numa

Marcius and it is difficult to

determine if it was a different

person, or the actual second king

of Rome.

509 BC PapiriusComplete dates in office

unknown.

449 BC FuriusComplete dates in office

unknown.


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431 BC Cornelius CossasComplete dates in office

unknown.

420 BC Minucius Complete dates in officeunknown.

390 BC Follius FlaccinatorComplete dates in office

unknown.

332 - 304

BCCornelius Callissa

304 - ? BCCornelius Scipio

Barbatus

Complete dates in office

unknown.

254 - 243

BCTib. Coruncanius First Plebeian Pontifex Maximus

243 - 221

BCCaecilius Metellus

217 - 213

BC

Cornelius Lentulus

Caudinus

212 - 183

BC

Licinius Crassus

Dives

183 - 180

BCServilius Geminus

180 - 152

BC

Aemilius Lepidus

152 -150

BC

No Pontifex

Maximus

150 - 141

BC

Cornelius Scipio

Nasica Corculum

141 - 132

BC

Publius Cornelius

Scipio Nasica

Serapio

Described by Plutarch as the first

Pontifex to break the religious

law not allowing him to leave


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Italy.

132 - 130

BC

Licinius Crassus

Dives Mucianus

Also noted as the first to leave

Italy, during the social disorderof theGracchi Brothers. After

which, it became increasingly

common and certainly not

against the law for the Pontifex

to leave Italy.

? - 115 BC P. Mucius Scaevola

Complete dates in office

unknown, but assumedly shortly

after his predecessor.

114 - 103

BC

Caecilius Metellus

Delmaticus

103 - 89

BC

Domitius

Ahenobarbus

89 - 82 BC Q. Mucius Scaevola

81 - 63 BCCaecilius Metellus

Pius

63 - 44 BCGaius Julius

Caesar

44 - 13 BC Aemilius Lepidus

12 BC Augustus

With the accession of Augustus,

the election of the Pontifex

Maximus ceased as eachsuccessive emperor held the

office. (Emperor list) In 382

AD, when the Eastern emperor

Theodosius established

Christianity as the official

religion of the empire, the

Western Emperor Gratian

relinquished the office to

the Christian Popes of Rome,

who have held it since that time.
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Vestal Virgins

The priestesses of the goddess Vesta were known as the Vestal Virgins. Theywere responsible for maintaining the sacred fire within the Temple of Vesta onthe Forum Romanum. Other duties included performing rituals in regards to theGoddess Vesta, and baking the sacred salt cake to be used at numerousceremonies in the year. They were the only female priests within the romanreligious system. The head of the college of Vesta was called the Virgo VestalisMaxima, and she was under the direct authority of the Pontifex Maximus.

The college of Vesta had 18 members, though 6 were considered actual VestalVirgins at any given time. They were selected from distinguished patricianfamilies at an age from three to ten, and such appointments were considered atop honor for any family to receive. They each served thirty years, the first tenyears as novices, then ten years as actual vestal virgins, and finally ten years as

supervisors responsible for training the novices. After the thirty years of dutythey were released from their duties and could then maintain a private life,including the right to marry. For men, arranging a marriage with a former vestalvirgin was highly prestigious, regardless of age or the ability to have children.

The vestals vowed to live in chastity for the thirty years their tenure lasted. Inreturn they were allowed many privileges not given to ordinary Roman women.As one example, the vestals were not subject to the pater potestas of theirfathers. Essentially they were allowed to handle their own properties andengage in legal contracts, they were allowed to travel around the city in acarriage and they had special seats in the front row at the various games,

where, in contrast women were normally relegated to the back seats. They wereconsidered inviolable and sacred and their blood could not be spilt without fearof terrible repercussion from the gods. So sacred and divine-like were thesepriestesses, that if a person sentenced to death met a vestal virgin on his way tothe execution, he would be automatically pardoned. Of course, special carewould be taken to prevent or to make sure this would happen, depending on thecircumstances.

While enjoying many benefits, including a rather luxurious life in the House ofVestal Virgins, punishment for breaking the rules were severe. The punishmentfor breaking the vow of chastity was death by burial alive as this was the

adopted to kill a vestal without shedding her blood. Such executions would takeplace in the "Evil Fields", or Campus Sceleratus, just outside the Servian Wall.Their lover would be flogged to death on the Comitium. While these executionstook place several times, it was obviously a rare event that carried all sorts ofnegative omens with it.

While the Pontifex Maximus continues to the present day as an office of thehigher order in the Catholic Church, the order of the vestals was disbanded in394 AD, when non-Christian cults were banned by Theodosius. The Church,wisely trying to keep the general population with a sense of familiarity, readilyadopted the use of convents and position of nuns that held many of the samerules and customs as the Vestals.


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Popes of Rome

Christian Popes of Rome Through the Fall of the

Western Empire

Year AD Pope

32 - 67 St. Peter (Simon ben Johanan)

67 - 76 St. Linus

76 - 88 St. Anacletus (Cletus)

88 - 97 St. Clement I (Clemens Romanus)

97 - 105 St. Evaristus

105 - 115 St. Alexander I

115 - 125 St. Sixtus I

126 - 136 St. Telesphorus

136 - 140 St. Hyginus

140 - 155 St. Pius I

155 - 166 St. Anicetus

166 - 175 St. Soter

175 - 189 St. Eleutherius

189 - 199 St. Victor I (Victorianus Africanus)

199 - 217 St. Zephyrinus

217 - 222 St. Callistus I

217 - 235 St. Hippolytus (anti-pope)


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222 - 230 St. Urban I

230 - 235 St. Pontianus

235 - 236 St. Anteros

236 - 250 St. Fabian

251 - 253 St. Cornelius

251 - 258 Novatian (anti-pope)

253 - 254 St. Lucius

254 - 257 St. Stephen I

257 - 258 St. Sixtus II

260 - 268 St. Dionysius

269 - 274 St. Felix I

275 - 283 St. Eutychianus

283 - 296 St. Caius

296 - 304 St. Marcellinus

304 - 306 vacant

306 - 308 St. Marcellus

308 - 310 vacant

310 St. Eusebius

311 - 314 St. Miltiades

314 - 335 St. Sylvester I


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336 St. Marcus

337 - 352 St. Julius I

352 - 366 Liberius

355 - 365 Felix II (anti-pope)

366 - 383 St. Damasus I

366 - 368 Ursinus (anti-pope)

384 - 399 St. Siricius (Tiburtius Siricius)

399 - 401 St. Anastasius I

401 - 417 St. Innocent I

417 - 418 St. Zosimus (Zosimus Abramides)

418 - 422 St. Boniface I

418 - 419 Eulalius (anti-pope)

422 - 432 St. Celestine I

432 - 440 St. Sixtus III

440 - 461 St. Leo I

461 - 468 St. Hilarius

468 - 483 St. Simplicius

Christianity History

The emergence of Christianity in the Roman Empire was based on manyfactors, and its spread was an indication of massive social upheaval andchanging environments. This article is intended to be a look at the history of theChristian religion, and not an ideological exploration of its mystical foundation.The concept of the historical Jesus Christ and the accuracy of the Bible's 'New


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Testament' (only from a mystical persepective as its recognition as a historicalsource is generally well accepted), can be considered irrelevant inunderstanding Christian history. Despite the written evidence for a historicalJesus, the mystical nature of the story of the Christ has led to a timeless debate.Whether one argues for or against the divinity of Jesus, one cannot argue the

impact or rapid spread of the 'Mystery Cult' that eventually came to dominate thewestern world. Biblical and Theologian Scholars have long debated the ancienttexts and Christian theory with Archaeologists or Scholars of alternative thoughton this matter. That debate will rage timelessly, but the history of the religion canbe examined even without dwelling on its divine beginnings, various historicalcomponents or conversely, the roles men may have played in arranging earlydoctrine.

While the debate regarding the mystical portion of the story of Jesus (Yeshuameans savior in Hebrew) Christ (Christos means anointed in Greek) of Nazarethcan be debated on many fronts from either side of the equation, the belief in his

existence became the focal point of Christianity's missionary spread. While evena date of birth is subject to great debate, and a rather confusing interpretation ofthe calendar, Biblical sources place his birth in a 10 year period somewherebetween 4 BC and 6 AD. As for the calendar, the birth of Jesus created aninteresting alteration of the dating system used in the western world to this day.The change in the Roman (or Julian) calendar counting forward from thefounding of Rome (Ab Urbe Conditum or AUC) to a date counting forward fromthe estimated birth of Christ was established in the 6th century by DionysiusExiguus. The creation of AD (Anno Domini for Year of our Lord in Latin) wasadded much later in the 12th century and BC (Before Christ in English) centuriesafter that (explaining the use of English words rather than Latin). While notnecessarily important in the context of Christian history, the complete alterationof the calendar does show the great influence of the Church in the late RomanEmpire and beyond.

Jesus the man is as shrouded in mystery as his birth, but the general theoriesand teachings of his adult life are well known. Because of the relationshipbetween Jesus' crucifixion and the known dates of Pontius Pilate serving asPrefect of Judea (26 - 36 AD), his death is generally ascribed as occurringbetween the years 30 and 35 AD. This period in Roman history is important forthe foundation this new fledgling cult, because of social conditions where it all

originated. Judea and the Palestine were governed by Rome, and the people intheir zeal for religious freedom, of their own ideology, were often openly hostileto foreign rule (especially Pagan or polytheistic faiths). Indeed many wereresistant to their own King Herod, for a multitude of reasons, but in part for whatwas deemed to be an oppressive government. Jesus' teachings, under theconcepts of Jewish law, taught of social equality, harmony and the freedom ofmen to decide their own fate. These ideas led to a small, yet slowly growingfollowing for a new hope and idea, in a time when the appearance of oppressionand inequality from Rome, their own governing authorities, and spiritual leaderswas front and center in the Jewish public eye.

It is certainly difficult to determine the effect of Jesus' death on his followingimmediately afterwards, but the rising popularity of anti establishment theory


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certainly played a part. One might think the death of its leader would stop theconcept cold, but Jesus' death became a rallying cry for martyrdom thatdominated the early religion. The Jewish Christians spread slowly in the generalregion, and established themselves in Syria, but real advancement occurred

under the work of the early missionaries. James the Just (sometimes referred toas the brother of Jesus) remained in Palestine and is understood to be theearliest leader of the Jewish Christian sect. Thaddeus went east to Armeniawhich would eventually (4th century) become the first official Christian state.Peter went to Rome, where later Catholic leaders attributed the founding of theCatholic Church to him and recognized him as the Church's first Pope, whileother early apostles spread the word elsewhere. Perhaps the most important ofall the early missionaries, though, was Paul of Tarsus. His tireless efforts inGreece, Asia Minor and throughout those provinces which make up modernTurkey, helped establish pockets of Christians all over the east. His writings arethe source for much of the early Church doctrines and they paint a vivid portrait

of its early struggles and strategies.

It is impossible to determine the number of Christians throughout the empire inthis earliest formative period or how quickly it caught hold, but Paul's missionschanged the scope from one of a Jewish sect to a Gentile cult. While the Jewishsect was markedly different from the Gentile persuasion that followed, many ofthe basic principles in conducting one's life remained similar enough to allow across-cultural conversion (discussing the differences requires an in-depth studyof the historical Jesus, Son of Man, Son of God and other early monotheistictheories and will not be done here). As Paul's mission spread, its most likelyappealing teachings were the messages of equality in the eyes of God andeternal life in his kingdom. The poor, the slaves, women and any who feltdisenfranchised with the Roman social system, that offered very limited upwardmobility, gravitated eagerly to this new idea of hope after death. The earlyChristians were more easily converted in places far from the central Romanauthority, and the religion took root in the east. Though it would later become amuch more urban practice, in which cities were largely Christian and ruralPaganism would survive for centuries, Rome was slow to acknowledge itsspread. It would not be long, however, before Rome did take notice of thissubversive, counter-culture cult, and the early Christians were forced to practicetheir faith in secrecy.

continue to Christian Persecution

Christian Persecution

As Christianity gained a foothold in the consciousness of the ancient world, theRoman authorities initially reacted slowly. As Jewish Christian migrations, andcertainly the work of Peter, brought the new cult to Rome, it became largelyidentified with the Jews. As the Jews, with their one god concept, and refusal toadopt the Roman Caesar worship ideology, were so largely associated with the

early Christians, the new cult got off to a very inauspicious start. This refusal oftypical Roman religious custom wasn't just an issue of a damaged ego for the
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Roman elite, but a serious undermining of the religious tradition incorporatingthe ideas of many cultures and practices. The Romans had little concern overeither Jewish or Christian practices on their own; it was their steadfastdedication to their own gods that would eventually lead to problems.

The relationship of early Christianity to the Jewish faith, and the foundation ofthe cult deeply rooted in a people accustomed to religious intolerance actuallyhelped it take hold initially. The Jews were accustomed to resisting politicalauthority in order to practice their religion, and the transition to Christianityamong these people helped foster the sense of Imperial resistance. To theRomans, Christians were a strange and subversive group, meeting incatacombs, sewers and dark alleys, done only for their own safety, butperpetuating the idea that the religion was odd, shameful and secretive. Rumorsof sexual depravity, child sacrifice and other disturbing behavior, left a stigma onthe early Christians. Perhaps worst of all was the idea of cannibalism. Theconcept of breaking bread originating with the last supper, partaking of the blood

and body of Christ, which later came to be known as Communion, was takenliterally. To the Romans, where religious custom dictated following ancientpractices in a literal sense, the idea of performing such a ritual as arepresentation was misunderstood, and the early cult had to deal with manysuch misperceptions.

The first mention of Christians from a perspective of Roman governmentintervention occurred under Claudius. The limited description is provided bySuetonius, the somewhat gossip oriented historian of the 'Twelve Caesar's":

"Since the Jews were constantly causing disturbances at the instigation ofChrist, he (Claudius) expelled them from the city (Rome)."

Despite this, Christians remained in Rome, and by the reign of the next emperor,Nero, the first major incident of Christian persecution took place in 64 AD. Thefire that ravaged Rome in that year, and the subsequent building of Nero'sgolden palace on the destroyed property, was wildly unpopular in Rome. Manyplaced blame directly on Nero, accusing him of intentionally lighting the fire, inorder to build his palace. Nero, seeking an unpopular scapegoat, turned theblame on the subversive Christians, playing on people's fears that their intentionwas the complete destruction of the Roman world as they waited for the

judgment day. Tacitus the invaluable Roman historian, writing years later,described Nero's response with some detail:

"Neither human resources, nor imperial generosity, nor appeasement of thegods, eliminated the sinister suspicion that the fire had been deliberately started.To stop the rumor, Nero, made scapegoats--and punished with every refinementthe notoriously depraved Christians (as they were popularly called). Theiroriginator, Christ, had been executed in Tiberius' reign by the Procurator ofJudaea, Pontius Pilatus (who was actually a Praefectus, not a Procurator). Butin spite of this temporary setback, the deadly superstition had broken out again,not just in Judaea (where the mischief had started) but even in Rome. All

degraded and shameful practices collect and flourish in the capital. First, Nerohad the self-admitted Christians arrested. Then, on their information, large


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numbers of others were condemned--not so much for starting fires as becauseof their hatred for the human race. Their deaths were made amusing. Dressed inwild animals' skins, they were torn to pieces by dogs, or crucified, or made intotorches to be seton fire after dark as illumination.... Despite their guilt as

Christians, and the ruthless punishment it deserved, the victims were pitied. Forit was felt that they were being sacrificed to one man's brutality rather than tothe national interest."

Suetonius added his own short confirmation:

"punishments were also inflicted on the Christians, a sect professing a new andmischievous religious belief."

This persecution wasn't aimed directly at the Christians in order to drive themout of Roman consciousness. Instead they provided an easy alternative target to

the blame, which was being cast directly on the Emperor. Still, Tacitus'description provides an in-depth look at the early Roman perception ofChristianity. As he suggests, however, Nero's violence likely did little to stop thespread, but instead helped spur its growth.

Under Domitian, just a generation later, some sources indicate anotherpersecution directed at Christians. Operating with the knowledge that Christiansrefused adhering to the Imperial Cult of Caesar worship, Domitian may havelaunched an investigation, sending a team to Galilee to discover the roots ofJesus. Though evidence is sketchy, it does indicate at least a generalknowledge and adversarial relationship between the Emperor and the cult.Domitian has also been accused of mass executions of Christians, which is true,but it wasn't necessarily a purge targeted at that single group. Domitian ruled inan almost tyrannical reign of terror in which many perished, not just Christians.Political enemies, 'divisive' groups and individuals of all kinds met terrible fates.Though he too, may have used the excuse of Christianity to justify somemurders, there is little evidence that he had a personal agenda against the cult.

Shortly after Domitian, the Emperor Trajan and the Governor of Bithynia-Pontus,Pliny, leave a record of Imperial attitude towards Christianity. In this period,Trajan forbid meetings of secret societies, and their potential for subversion,

which would include the Christians. Though Trajan's reign indicates a slight shifttowards tolerance, there is little doubt that Christianity created problems for theadministration and led to punishment for those who practiced it. Pliny writes in aletter to Trajan (c. 112 AD):

"I have never been present at an examination of Christians. So, I do not knowthe nature or the extent of the punishments usually dealt out to them, nor thegrounds for starting an investigation and how far it should be carried...For themoment this is the line I have taken with all persons brought before me on thecharge of being Christians. I have asked them in person if they are Christians; ifthey admit it, I repeat the question a second and a third time, with a warning of

the punishment awaiting them. If they persist, I order them to be led away forpunishment; for whatever the nature of their admission, I am convinced that their


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stubbornness and unshakeable obstinacy ought to be punished. There havebeen others similarly fanatical who are Roman citizens; I have entered them onthe list of persons to be sent to Rome for punishment.... I considered that Ishould dismiss any who denied that they were or ever had been Christians,

once they had repeated after me a formula of invocation to the gods and hadmade offerings of wine and incense to your statue (which I had ordered to bebrought into court for this purpose along with images of the gods), andfurthermore had cursed the name of Christ. Real Christians (I understand) cannever be induced to do these things....They declared that the sum total of theirguilt or error amounted to no more than this: they had met regularly before dawnon a fixed day to chant verses alternately among themselves in honor of Christas if to a god, and also to bind themselves by oath, not for any criminal purpose,but to abstain from theft, robbery and adultery, to commit no breach of trust andnot to refuse to return a deposit upon demand. After this ceremony it had beentheir custom to disperse and later to take food of an ordinary harmless kind. But

they had in fact given this up since my edict, issued on your instructions whichbanned all political societies. This made me decide it was all the morenecessary to extract the truth from two slave women (whom they call`deaconesses' by torture. I found nothing but a degenerate sort of cult carried toextravagant lengths... I have therefore postponed any further examination andhastened to consult you..."

Trajan replies giving evidence of a general procedure of punishment forChristians, while also indicating that there is no need to seek them out:

"You have followed the right course of procedure, my dear Pliny, in yourexamination of the cases of persons charged with being Christians. For it isimpossible to lay down a general rule to a fixed formula. These people must notbe hunted out. But if they are brought before you and the charge against them isproved true, they must be punished. But in the case of anyone who denies thathe is a Christian, and makes it clear that he is not, by offering prayers to ourgods, he is to be pardoned as a result of his repentance--however suspect hisconduct may have been in the past. But pamphlets circulated anonymouslymust play no part in any accusation. They create the worst precedent, and arequite out of keeping with the spirit of our age."

Trajan's successor, Hadrian, seems to have continued a mostly indifferentapproach to Christianity, provided they didn't engage in open hostility. Instead,massive uprisings of Jews led to harsh punishment. This punishment meted outto the Jews, involving massive expulsions from eastern settlements, is clearlyidentified as separate from Christianity. This is important in that, the Christiansby now were growing beyond the Jewish roots and was becoming more andmore a religious option for Gentiles. Still though, Hadrian and those in authoritystill must've identified some Jews and Christians as part of the same group andits impossible to think that some Christians didn't meet a similar terrible fateunder his rule.

Under Marcus Aurelius, the so-called stoic emperor, Christianity continued to beidentified in a similar way to that of Trajan and Hadrian. Marcus Aurelius,


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however, had a personal dislike of Christianity, and though he continued thepractice of not seeking them out for punishment, persecutions during his reign,especially those in Lyons (c. 177 AD) were particularly bloody. Shortlythereafter, in the reign of Commodus, who was much maligned for personal

debauchery, there seems to be a slight shift in favor of Christians. By this time,the religion was definitely beginning to become more common among Romansof means and influence. A concubine of the Emperor, by name of Marcia,apparently negotiated the release of Christian mine workers, who must've livedunder deplorable conditions.

Though the attitude towards Christianity was beginning to change, wide spreadacceptance was still a long time off. Some sects, such as the Montanists of the2nd century adhered to encouraging death by persecution. Not only would thisadvance the faith through martyrdom, it would bring the victim closer to Christ,by following in his footsteps. By the later 3rd century, however, Christian

persecution from imperial sources was beginning to decline. Instead theinfighting between various sects of the faith became the source of persecution.The Pagans too, in much later periods, would suffer as terrible atrocities as theearly Christians. Despite this switch, one more great persecution was still tooccur. Under the Eastern Emperor Diocletion, beginning in 303 AD and lastingfor 8 years, he and his successor Galerius began a systematic purge ofChristians. While many certainly perished, most were displaced from home andproperty. Many migrated west where the Imperial authority was more tolerant bythis point. However, in places like Syria, Egypt and Asia Minor, the Christianscertainly suffered terribly. Diocletion though, seems to have relented as heapproached his own deathbed. He ordered the discontinuation of his aggressivepolicy, if only the Christians would pray to their god on his behalf. This finalpersecution against the now massive religion would soon be supplanted by thecoming of Constantine and would not yet gain Imperial favor but certainlycomplete tolerance.

Despite the sporadic persecutions, Christianity was persistent. Between thebeginning of the cult through the Great Persecution of Diocletion, someestimates have placed the death toll as high as 100,000 people during thatperiod. Others, like the ancient source Origen, list the number of Christianmartyrs simply as 'relatively few'. Edward Gibbon, the 18th century writer lists

the number at 'less than 2000', but the truth of the matter will never be known forsure and these numbers are also dependent on semantics. Some viewed theconcept of 'martyrdom' as any Christian who had been killed for any reason.Others defined it more conservatively as only those that were executed indefense of their religion. Regardless, by 337 AD and the ascension ofConstantine as sole Emperor, the population of the Christian world continued tosurge forward. As many as 25 to 30% of the population of the Roman Empire(15 to 20 of 60 million people) has been estimated as being Christian. Togetherwith other similar monotheistic cults, like those of Mithras and Sol Invictus, theold Pagan traditions were slowly becoming a thing of the past. The church too,would do everything in its power to be sure of its continued path to dominance,

and the tables would be completely turned on both traditional Pagans anddissenting 'heretics'.


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