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MemoryFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, seeMemory (disambiguation).

Neuropsychology

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Inpsychology, memory is an organism's ability to store, retain, and recall information and experiences.

Traditional studies of memory began in the fields ofphilosophy, including techniques ofartificially enhancing

memory. The late nineteenth and early twentieth century put memory within theparadigms ofcognitive

psychology. In recent decades, it has become one of the principal pillars of a branch of science

calledcognitive neuroscience, an interdisciplinary link between cognitive psychology and neuroscience.

Contents

[hide]

1 Processes

o 1.1 Long-term

2 Models

o 2.1 Atkinson-Shiffrin model

o 2.2 Working memory

o 2.3 Levels of processing

3 Classification by information type

4 Classification by temporal direction

5 Physiology

6 Genetics
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indefinitely. By contrast, long-term memory can store much larger quantities of information for potentially

unlimited duration (sometimes a whole life span). Its capacity is immeasurably large. For example, given a

random seven-digit number we may remember it for only a few seconds before forgetting, suggesting it

was stored in our short-term memory. On the other hand, we can remember telephone numbers for many

years through repetition; this information is said to be stored in long-term memory.

While short-term memory encodes information acoustically, long-term memory encodes it semantically[citation

needed]: Baddeley (1966)[1] discovered that after 20 minutes, test subjects had the most difficulty recalling a

collection of words that had similar meanings (e.g. big, large, great, huge).

Short-term memory is supported by transient patterns of neuronal communication, dependent on regions of

the frontal lobe (especially dorsolateralprefrontal cortex) and theparietal lobe. Long-term memories, on the

other hand, are maintained by more stable and permanent changes in neural connections widely spread

throughout the brain. Thehippocampus is essential (for learning new information) to the consolidation of

information from short-term to long-term memory, although it does not seem to store information itself.

Without the hippocampus, new memories are unable to be stored into long-term memory, and there will be

a very shortattention span. Furthermore, it may be involved in changing neural connections for a period of

three months or more after the initial learning. One of the primary functions ofsleep is thought to be

improving consolidation of information, as several studies have demonstrated that memory depends on

getting sufficient sleep between training and test. Additionally, data obtained from neuroimaging studies

have shown activation patterns in the sleeping brain which mirror those recorded during the learning of

tasks from the previous day, suggesting that new memories may be solidified through such rehearsal.

[edit]Models

Models of memory provide abstract representations of how memory is believed to work. Below are several

models proposed over the years by various psychologists. Note that there is some controversy as to

whether there are several memory structures, for example, Tarnow (2005) finds that it is likely that there is

only one memory structure between 6 and 600 seconds.

[edit]Atkinson-Shiffrin model

See also:Memory consolidation

The multi-store model (also known asAtkinson-Shiffrin memory model) was first recognised in 1968

by Atkinson andShiffrin.

The multi-store model has been criticised for being too simplistic. For instance, long-term memory isbelieved to be actually made up of multiple subcomponents, such as episodic and procedural memory. It
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also proposes that rehearsal is the only mechanism by which information eventually reaches long-term

storage, but evidence shows us capable of remembering things without rehearsal.

The model also shows all the memory stores as being a single unit whereas research into this shows

differently. For example, short-term memory can be broken up into different units such as visual informationand acoustic information. Patient KF proves this. Patient KF was brain damagedand had problems with his

short term memory. He had problems with things such as spoken numbers, letters and words and with

significant sounds (such as doorbells and cats meowing). Other parts of short term memory were

unaffected, such as visual (pictures).[2]

It also shows the sensory store as a single unit whilst we know that the sensory store is split up into several

different parts such as taste, vision, and hearing.

[edit]Working memory

The working memory model.

Main article: working memory

In 1974 Baddeley and Hitch proposed aworking memory modelwhich replaced the concept of general

short term memory with specific, active components. In this model, working memory consists of three basic

stores: the central executive, the phonological loop and the visuo-spatial sketchpad. In 2000 this model

was expanded with the multimodal episodic buffer.[3]

The central executive essentially acts as attention. It channels information to the three component

processes: the phonological loop, the visuo-spatial sketchpad, and the episodic buffer.

The phonological loop stores auditory information by silently rehearsing sounds or words in a continuous

loop: the articulatory process (for example the repetition of a telephone number over and over again).

Then, a short list of data is easier to remember.

The visuospatial sketchpad stores visual and spatial information. It is engaged when performing spatial

tasks (such as judging distances) or visual ones (such as counting the windows on a house or imagining

images).
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The episodic buffer is dedicated to linking information across domains to form integrated units of visual,

spatial, and verbal information and chronological ordering (e.g., the memory of a story or a movie scene).

The episodic buffer is also assumed to have links to long-term memory and semantical meaning.

The working memory model explains many practical observations, such as why it is easier to do twodifferent tasks (one verbal and one visual) than two similar tasks (e.g., two visual), and the aforementioned

word-length effect. However, the concept of a central executive as noted here has been criticised as

inadequate and vague.[citation needed]

[edit]Levels of processing

Main article: Levels-of-processing effect

Craik and Lockhart (1972) proposed that it is the method and depth of processing that affects how an

experience is stored in memory, rather than rehearsal.

Organization - Mandler (1967) gave participants a pack of word cards

and asked them to sort them into any number of piles using any system of

categorisation they liked. When they were later asked to recall as many of

the words as they could, those who used more categories remembered

more words. This study suggested that the act of organising information

makes it more memorable.

Distinctiveness - Eysenck and Eysenck (1980) asked participants to

say words in a distinctive way, e.g. spell the words out loud. Such

participants recalled the words better than those who simply read them off

a list.

Effort - Tyleret al. (1979) had participants solve a series of anagrams,

some easy (FAHTER) and some difficult (HREFAT). The participants

recalled the difficult anagrams better, presumably because they put more

effort into them.

Elaboration - Palmere et al. (1983) gave participants descriptive

paragraphs of a fictitious African nation. There were some short

paragraphs and some with extra sentences elaborating the main idea.

Recall was higher for the ideas in the elaborated paragraphs.

[edit]Classification by information type

Anderson (1976)[4] divides long-term memory intodeclarative (explicit)andprocedural (implicit)memories.

Declarative memoryrequires consciousrecall, in that some conscious process must call back the

information. It is sometimes called explicit memory, since it consists of information that is explicitly stored

and retrieved.
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Declarative memory can be further sub-divided intosemantic memory, which concerns facts taken

independent of context; and episodic memory, which concerns information specific to a particular context,

such as a time and place. Semantic memory allows the encoding of abstract knowledge about the world,

such as "Paris is the capital of France". Episodic memory, on the other hand, is used for more personal

memories, such as the sensations, emotions, and personal associations of a particular place or

time.Autobiographical memory - memory for particular events within one's own life - is generally viewed as

either equivalent to, or a subset of, episodic memory.Visual memoryis part of memory preserving some

characteristics of our senses pertaining to visual experience. One is able to place in memory information

that resembles objects, places, animals or people in sort of a mental image. Visual memory can result

in primingand it is assumed some kind of perceptual representational system underlies this

phenomenon. [2]

In contrast, procedural memory(orimplicit memory) is not based on the conscious recall of information, but

onimplicitlearning. Procedural memory is primarily employed in learningmotor skills and should be

considered a subset of implicit memory. It is revealed when one does better in a given task due only to

repetition - no new explicit memories have been formed, but one isunconsciouslyaccessing aspects of

those previous experiences. Procedural memory involved in motor learning depends on

the cerebellumandbasal ganglia.

Topographic memory is the ability to orient oneself in space, to recognize and follow an itinerary, or to

recognize familiar places.[5]Getting lost when traveling alone is an example of the failure of topographic

memory. This is often reported among elderly patients who are evaluated for dementia. The disorder could

be caused by multiple impairments, including difficulties with perception, orientation, and memory.[6]

[edit]Classification by temporal direction

A further major way to distinguish different memory functions is whether the content to be remembered is in

the past, retrospective memory, or whether the content is to be remembered in the future,prospective

memory. Thus, retrospective memory as a category includes semantic, episodic and autobiographical

memory. In contrast, prospective memory is memory for future intentions, orremembering to

remember(Winograd, 1988). Prospective memory can be further broken down into event- and time-based

prospective remembering. Time-based prospective memories are triggered by a time-cue, such as going to

the doctor (action) at 4pm (cue). Event-based prospective memories are intentions triggered by cues, such

as remembering to post a letter (action) after seeing a mailbox (cue). Cues do not need to be related to the

action (as the mailbox example is), and lists, sticky-notes, knotted handkerchiefs, or string around the

finger are all examples of cues that are produced by people as a strategy to enhance prospective memory.

[edit]Physiology

Brain areas involved in theneuroanatomy of memory such as the hippocampus, theamygdala,

the striatum, or the mammillary bodies are thought to be involved in specific types of memory. For example,

the hippocampus is believed to be involved in spatial learning and declarative learning, while the amygdala
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is thought to be involved in emotional memory. Damage to certain areas in patients and animal models and

subsequent memory deficits is a primary source of information. However, rather than implicating a specific

area, it could be that damage to adjacent areas, or to a pathway traveling through the area is actually

responsible for the observed deficit. Further, it is not sufficient to describe memory, and its

counterpart,learning, as solely dependent on specific brain regions. Learning and memory are attributed to

changes in neuronalsynapses, thought to be mediated by long-term potentiation andlong-term depression.

Hebb distinguished between short-term and long-term memory. He postulated that any memory that stayed

in short-term storage for a long enough time would be consolidated into a long-term memory. Later

research showed this to be false. Research has shown that direct injections ofcortisolorepinephrine help

the storage of recent experiences. This is also true for stimulation of the amygdala. This proves that

excitement enhances memory by the stimulation of hormones that affect the amygdala. Excessive or

prolonged stress (with prolonged cortisol) may hurt memory storage. Patients with amygdalar damage are

no more likely to remember emotionally charged words than nonemotionally charged ones. The

hippocampus is important for explicit memory. The hippocampus is also important for memory

consolidation. The hippocampus receives input from different parts of the cortex and sends its output out to

different parts of the brain also. The input comes from secondary and tertiary sensory areas that have

processed the information a lot already. Hippocampal damage may also causememory loss and problems

with memory storage.[7]

[edit]Genetics

Study of the genetics of human memory is in its infancy. A notable initial success was the association

ofAPOE with memory dysfunction in Alzheimer's Disease. The search for genes associated with normally-

varying memory continues. One of the first candidates for normal variation in memory is the gene KIBRA,

which appears to be associated with the rate at which material is forgotten over a delay period.

[edit]Disorders

Much of the current knowledge of memory has come from studyingmemory disorders. Loss of memory is

known as amnesia. There are many sorts of amnesia, and by studying their different forms, it has become

possible to observe apparent defects in individual sub-systems of the brain's memory systems, and thus

hypothesize their function in the normally working brain. Otherneurologicaldisorders such as Alzheimer's

disease can also affect memory and cognition. Hyperthymesia, or hyperthymesic syndrome, is a disorder

which affects an individual's autobiographical memory, essentially meaning that they cannot forget small

details that otherwise would not be stored.[8]Korsakoff's syndrome, also known as Korsakoff's psychosis,

amnesic-confabulatory syndrome, is an organic brain disease that adversely affects memory.

While not a disorder, a common temporaryfailure of word retrieval from memory is the tip-of-the-

tonguephenomenon. Sufferers of Nominal Aphasia (also calledAnomia), however, do experience the tip-

of-the-tongue phenomenon on an ongoing basis due to damage to the frontal and parietal lobes of the

brain.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion_and_memoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion_and_memoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synapsehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synapsehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synapsehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_potentiationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_depressionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_depressionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_depressionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cortisolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cortisolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epinephrinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_losshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Memory&action=edit&section=10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apolipoprotein_Ehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apolipoprotein_Ehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alzheimer's_Diseasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KIBRAhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KIBRAhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Memory&action=edit&section=11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_disorderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_disorderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amnesiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alzheimer's_diseasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alzheimer's_diseasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperthymesiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperthymesiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#cite_note-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#cite_note-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korsakoff's_syndromehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korsakoff's_syndromehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korsakoff's_syndromehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tip_of_the_tonguehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tip_of_the_tonguehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenomenonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anomiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anomiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lobes_of_the_brainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lobes_of_the_brainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion_and_memoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synapsehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_potentiationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_depressionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cortisolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epinephrinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_losshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Memory&action=edit&section=10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apolipoprotein_Ehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alzheimer's_Diseasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KIBRAhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Memory&action=edit&section=11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_disorderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amnesiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alzheimer's_diseasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alzheimer's_diseasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperthymesiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#cite_note-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korsakoff's_syndromehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tip_of_the_tonguehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tip_of_the_tonguehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenomenonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anomiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lobes_of_the_brainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lobes_of_the_brain


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as incorporating memory exercises,healthy eating, physical fitnessandstress reduction into their daily

lives.[12]

There are a loosely associated group of mnemonic principles and techniques that can be used to vastly

improve memory known as the Art of memory.

The International Longevity Centerreleased in 2001 a report[13]which includes in pages 1416

recommendations for keeping the mind in good functionality until advanced age. Some of the

recommendations are to stay intellectually active through learning, training or reading, to keep physically

active so to promote blood circulation to the brain, to socialize, to reduce stress, to keep sleep time regular,

to avoid depression or emotional instability and to observe good nutrition.

[edit]Memory tasks

Paired associate learning - when one learns to associate one specific

word with another. For example when given a word such as "safe" one

must learn to say another specific word, such as "green". This is stimulus

and response.[14]

Free recall - during this task a subject would be asked to study a list of

words and then sometime later they will be asked to recall or write down

as many words that they can remember.[15]

Recognition - subjects are asked to remember a list of words or

pictures, after which point they are asked to identify the previously

presented words or pictures from among a list of alternatives that were not

presented in the original list.[16]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Healthy_eatinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Healthy_eatinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_fitnesshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_fitnesshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress_managementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress_managementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#cite_note-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_of_memoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Longevity_Centerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#cite_note-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#cite_note-12http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Memory&action=edit&section=15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#cite_note-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#cite_note-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#cite_note-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#cite_note-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#cite_note-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#cite_note-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Healthy_eatinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_fitnesshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress_managementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#cite_note-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_of_memoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Longevity_Centerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#cite_note-12http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Memory&action=edit&section=15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#cite_note-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#cite_note-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#cite_note-15


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Human Memory Encoding, Storage,Retention, and Retrieval

Memory is retention of information over a period of time. Ebbinghaus studied

memories by teaching himself lists of nonsense words and then studying his

retention of these lists over periods of hours to days. This was one of the earlieststudies of memory in psychology.

Contents:

1. Short Term Memory

2. Working Memory3. Long Term Memory

4. Spreading Activation Model

5. Practice and Strength

6. Depth of Processing7. Elaborative Processing and Text

8. Forgetting: Gone or Inaccessible?

9. Forgetting: Decay or Interference?10.Retrieval and Inference

11.Other Facts about Memory

Short Term Memory

While Ebbinghaus studied retention over long intervals, later experiments studied

memory loss over periods of seconds to minutes. Short term memory was

postulated to explain temporary retention of information as distinct from long term

retention of information . Short term memory acts to also store current sensory

information and to rehearse new information from sensory buffers. It has limitedcapacity (Miller's 7 plus or minus 2). The probability of encoding in Long term

memory has been directly related to time in short term memory.

It is now believed that the loss of information stored in short term memory has the

same characteristics as loss of information stored in long term memory. It happens

quicker because it involves information that is not learned as well. What we call

the learning process is transferring information from short term to long term

memory and is a physiological process. The shape of the memory loss curves are

the same. Hence we don't need to postulate a special type of memory. Instead, weneed a theory of:


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Why we can rehearse only a limited amount of information at a time.

How different memories get different strengths (and so are forgotten at

different rates).

Working MemoryHere we address why we can rehearse only limited information at a time.

Articulatory Loop Rehearsal limitations are due to limits in how long it takes

verbal material to decay, not how many items we can store. Hence, the faster we

can rehearse, the more we can store (Baddeley, 1986). Experimental support: wordlength effect. How long it takes to read words predicts how many words will be

remembered. Articulatory loop is called the phonological loop due to evidence thatit involves speech. We can rehearse about 1.5 seconds of verbal material before it

decays. Time in the loop is not related to probability of coding in long termmemory. Baddeley's model proposes that we have a visual/spatial sketchpad as

well as the phonological loop. These hold information for use by a central

executive. There is evidence that a particular area of the frontal cortex is involved

in working memory.

Long Term Memory

A simple observation: we often need to recall information that we learned long

ago.How quickly and reliably we recall it depends on:

Activation: How long since we last used the information.

Strength: How well we have practiced it.

Experimental Evidence: (Anderson 1976) - Subjects learn some sentences. Some

sentences are studied twice as long as others. Subjects must discriminate sentences

they learned from distracters. They are tested for each sentence more than once,

with varying intervening sentences. Results: Both amount of study and how

recently the information was accessed affect speed of response. However amount

of study matters only if the information was not recently accessed (an interactioneffect).

Delay (number of intervening items) Degree of Study

Less Study More Study

Short (0-2) 1.11 seconds 1.10 seconds

Long (3 or more) 1.53 seconds 1.38 seconds

Spreading Activation Model


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When information becomes easier to access as a result of having been used

recently, we say it is more activated. This activation spreads between semantically

related concepts.

Empirical Evidence:

Subjects are faster at confirming that a pair of words are both words if the

second word is an associate of the first, for example, bread and butter

(Meyer and Schvaneveldt 1971). Given a word, subjects are asked to give an associated word. Their response

is faster if subjects have responded with an associated word on a previoustrial (Perlmutter and Anderson, figure 6.8).

Speed of activation seems to be about 200ms (as measured by Ratcliff and

McKoon, 1981).

Implication: Text is easier to read if semantically related words are used.

Practice and Strength

We've seen that speed of recall of information from long term memory depends in

part on how recently that information has been activated. However, what about the

fact that speed of recall also depends on amount of practice? Activation changes

quickly over time. The effect of practice decays much more slowly over time(witness Ebbinghaus, the alphabet). Thus these are believed to be distinct

processes.

Power Law of Learning

A very robust result: the effect of practice in a wide range of different tasks fits apower law

Reaction Time equals C * Practice Time K where C and K are constants that

depend on the task.

Practice helps a lot at first, then provides decreasing gains as you reach the limits

of your performance ability.

Long-Term Potentiation - There appears to be a neural basis for this law of

learning. Neural pathways in the hippocampus (known to be involved in learning)

become increasingly sensitive when stimulated. The change in sensitivity follows apower law relationship.

Depth of Processing


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Craik and Lockhart (1972) proposed that strength of memory depends on how

deeply information is processed, not on how long it is processed

Experimental support: Memory for words not improved by merely repeating them

for a longer period of time (Glenberg et al. 1977). A large number of studies

support the depth of processing conclusion. It applies to subject matter learning as

well as laboratory situations. Subsequent work focused on what constitutes deep

processing.

Processing Meaning:

Some lab studies compare tasks that require processing meaning of words versusform (e.g., what letters do they have).

Elaborative Processing and Text

Studies show benefits of connecting the items to be remembered to other relatedinformation (e.g., elaborating on sentences to be remembered, or rhyming).

Intention does not matter. Subjects in deeper processing conditions do better

regardless of whether they know they will need to remember the processed items.

Implications for study habits and method.

1. Preview the material

2. Make up questions3. Read, trying to answer the questions

4. Reflect while you read. think of examples, relate it to what you know.5. Recite the information in each section after you've read it. Re-read what

6. you can't recall.7. Review the major points and the answers to your questions at the end.

Question generation is at least as beneficial as question answering.

Questions generated before the material rather than after may be more

beneficial

Forgetting: Gone, or Inaccessible

Do we forget because the information is gone, or do we forget because we can't

access information that is still there? It is difficult to distinguish the two. However,there is evidence that we retain more than we can retrieve.

Experiment: (Nelson 1971) - Learn paired associates (numbers to nouns). Tested2 weeks later to see which were remembered. Then given new material to learn

that had some of the forgotten numbers, both with and without their original nouns.


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Results: Subjects relearned the original associations faster (in spite of the fact that

they could not recall them). Subjects relearned the original associations faster (in

spite of the fact that they could not recall them). This suggests that some

associative information was retained. One possible interpretation: strength of

memories decay gradually. If these strengths fall below a certain threshold, wecan't recall the information, but the remaining memory trace is still there to

facilitate relearning.

Forgetting: Decay or Interference?

Is forgetting due to decay of unused information, or to interference of new

information with old information? Different kinds of evidence are offered for eachposition.

A survey of forgetting research concluded that the rate at which we forgetinformation usually conforms to a power law: we forget a lot at first, but over time

the rate of forgetting diminishes.

Decrease in long-term potentiation follows a similar power law. These facts are

interpreted by some as evidence for a physiologically determined decay rate.

Interference Experiments Typical Experiment (A-D C-D paradigm):

1. Subjects all learn A-B association (between items on list A and items on list

B).2. Experimental subjects learn A-D associations (which use the same stimuli

items as the A-B associations), while control subjects learn C-D association.

3. Everyone is tested on A-B associations.

Typical Results: Experimental subjects take longer to learn their second set of

associations than controls, and make more errors on the A-B test. Experimental

subjects take longer to learn their second set of associations than controls, and

make more errors on the A-B test. These results are interpreted as evidence that

learning new associations to stimuli causes forgetting of old associations.However, interference does not happen with factual material when the additionalfacts are redundant with (e.g., causally related to) the original facts.

Fan Effect (a model) - Interference effects can be modeled as weakening ofspreading activation over multiple links in a propositional network.

Stimulus activates concept nodes.- Fixed (limited) amount of activation spreads

from activated nodes over associative links, divided equally between links. (Hence

the more links, the less activation per link.) Activation converges at propositional

nodes (candidate responses) until one emerges as the answer. Time to identify theresponse is inversely related to level of activation.


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Decay or Interference? Some claim that interference can produce the appearance of

decay although it appears, both mechanisms are involved in forgetting or memory

loss.

Retrieval and InferenceIt is well established that people make inferences during retrieval, and believe that

they saw or heard things that they in fact did not. People are more likely to

erroneously think they read a sentence if it is an implication of something they

read.

Effect of Prior Knowledge - People add other knowledge they have about the

material studied.

Effect of Question Wording - Subjects shown film of automobile accident.Subjects asked: Did you see a broken headlight? or Did you see the broken

headlight? (There was actually none.) Results:Subjects more likely to respond yes

to the broken headlight. Implications for courtroom testimony!

Other Facts about Memory

Organization of Material

Retrieval of information is better if the information is organized in some mannersupporting systematic search, such as in hierarchies.

Method of Loci

The ancients remembered things by imagining taking a familiar walk, and placing

the things to be remembered at locations along the way. This method works

because it organizes the material to be remembered and it encourages elaborative

processing and memorable imagery.

Context-Dependent Learning

Physical and emotional context may be inadvertently coded as retrieval cues, alongwith the intended cues.

Consistent with this idea, various studies show that recall is better when tested inthe same context (physical or emotional) as in which learning took place. Some

benefit has been found studying for important exams in the same room as they willbe taken. However these results are variable.

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Human Memory The Science

Theories and Processes underlying memory, memorization improvement are a few

basic concepts. Although we will not go into extensive detail about theories of

memory, we will present some of the basic ideas to help you understand why

certain techniques work.

Brain mind memory encoding, storage, retention, and retrieval

Understand your brains natural memory rhythms and take advantage of them to

improve your memory, memorization skills and enhance your learning

capabilities.

Memory memorization and related learning principles

Improving memory - memory enhancing techniques methods for improvedmemorization

An Empirical Investigation Into the Effect of Beta Frequency Binaural Beat AudioSignals on Four Measures of Human Memory

Memory and related learning principles

Mnemonic Techniques and Specific Memory Tricks to Improve memory and

memorization techniques Tricks to improve memory and memorization

Generic Long Term Memory memorization

Hermann Ebbinghaus- Memory learning memorization maximizing recall retention
http://web-us.com/MEMORY/human_memory.htmhttp://web-us.com/MEMORY/theories_and_processes.htmhttp://web-us.com/MEMORY/theories_and_processes.htmhttp://web-us.com/MEMORY/theories_and_processes.htmhttp://web-us.com/MEMORY/theories_and_processes.htmhttp://web-us.com/MEMORY/memory_encoding.htmhttp://web-us.com/brain/brainmemoryrythms.htmhttp://web-us.com/brain/brainmemoryrythms.htmhttp://web-us.com/brain/brainmemoryrythms.htmhttp://web-us.com/brain/brainmemoryrythms.htmhttp://web-us.com/MEMORY/memory_and_related_learning_prin.htmhttp://web-us.com/MEMORY/improving_memory.htmhttp://web-us.com/MEMORY/improving_memory.htmhttp://web-us.com/bbmemoryindex.htmhttp://web-us.com/bbmemoryindex.htmhttp://web-us.com/MEMORY/memory_and_related_learning_prin.htmhttp://web-us.com/MEMORY/mnemonic_techniques.htmhttp://web-us.com/MEMORY/mnemonic_techniques.htmhttp://web-us.com/MEMORY/generic_ltm_memory.htmhttp://web-us.com/MEMORY/hermann_ebbinghaus.htmhttp://web-us.com/MEMORY/human_memory.htmhttp://web-us.com/MEMORY/theories_and_processes.htmhttp://web-us.com/MEMORY/theories_and_processes.htmhttp://web-us.com/MEMORY/theories_and_processes.htmhttp://web-us.com/MEMORY/memory_encoding.htmhttp://web-us.com/brain/brainmemoryrythms.htmhttp://web-us.com/brain/brainmemoryrythms.htmhttp://web-us.com/brain/brainmemoryrythms.htmhttp://web-us.com/MEMORY/memory_and_related_learning_prin.htmhttp://web-us.com/MEMORY/improving_memory.htmhttp://web-us.com/MEMORY/improving_memory.htmhttp://web-us.com/bbmemoryindex.htmhttp://web-us.com/bbmemoryindex.htmhttp://web-us.com/MEMORY/memory_and_related_learning_prin.htmhttp://web-us.com/MEMORY/mnemonic_techniques.htmhttp://web-us.com/MEMORY/mnemonic_techniques.htmhttp://web-us.com/MEMORY/generic_ltm_memory.htmhttp://web-us.com/MEMORY/hermann_ebbinghaus.htm


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Underlying memory improvement are a few basic concepts. Although we will not

go into extensive detail about theories of memory, we will present some of the

basic ideas to help you understand why certain techniques work.

ATTENTION AND SELECTION

The first process of memory is attention. There is much more information in yourenvironment than you can process at any one time. Thus, you must make choices

(conscious and unconscious) regarding the stimuli to which you will attend.

Imagine two students who are driving to Padre Island, TX for spring break. Both

have different plans for how they want to spend their vacation: one listening to

local bands, the other surfing and swimming. They stop to eat at a sidewalk cafe,

where they are approached by a stranger who asks if they know of a surf shopnearby. Assuming they passed one on the way to the cafe, the chances are that the

surfer, but not the friend, would have remembered seeing it. Had the stranger askedabout music clubs, you might find the opposite scenario. Each one likely attended

to what was of interest. We will have more to say about attention later, but we

present the idea here to emphasize the roles attention and selection play in our

memory.

ENCODING

Once something is attended to, it must be encoded to be remembered. Basically,encoding refers to translating incoming information into a mental representation

that can be stored in memory. You can encode the same information in a numberof different ways. For example, you can encode information according to its sound

(acoustic code), what it looks like (visual code), or what it means (semantic code).Suppose, for example, that you are trying to remember these three types of

encoding from your notes. You might say each of the terms aloud and encode the

sounds of the words (acoustic), you might see the three types of encoding on your

page and visualize the way the words look (visual), or you might think about the

meanings of each of the terms (semantic).

How does encoding apply to memory? Well, the way you encode information mayaffect what you remember and how you recall it later. If you encoded the three

things visually or acoustically, but not semantically, you may be able to list themduring a test, but you may have difficulty recalling what each term means. If you

encoded them only semantically, you might be able to explain what they mean but

have difficulty remembering the order in which they were listed on the page.

You may be able to remember information best if you use techniques (while

retrieving the information) that are related to the way you encoded it. For example,if you encoded something visually, you will be able to recall it most easily by


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drawing on visual cues. You will find that many of the memory techniques

discussed in this section are designed to help you encode the information in

different ways.

STORAGE

Storage is the process of holding information in your memory. A distinction is

often made between short-term and long-term memory. Short-term memory is just

that, brief and transient. Think about looking up a new phone number in the phonebook and making a call. You may remember it long enough to make the call, but

do not recall it later. This is your short-term memory, which can hold a smallamount of information for a short period of time. Once you stop attending to the

number, perhaps after you make the call and move on to another task, you are

likely to forget it. In order to remember the number for a longer period of time (and

after attending to other things), you would need to store it in your long-termmemory.

The transfer of information from short- to long-term memory can be achieved inmany ways. Simply repeating the information can help if it's repeated enough

times. For example, frequently called phone numbers are remembered because youhave used (repeated) the number many times. Although simply repeating, or

practicing, something can help move it into long-term memory, another strategy

for transferring information is to think about it deeply. That is, elaborate on the

information, drawing connections between what you are trying to remember and

the other things with which you are already familiar. You might learn thattelephone number quicker, for example, if you notice that it includes the dates ofyour friend's birthday, the numbers on your license plate, or some other familiar

number pattern.

RETRIEVAL

Retrieval is the process of actually remembering something when you want to. Ifyou think about tip-of-the-tongue experiences, when you know a word or name but

just can't seem to recall it, you will understand how retrieval is different from

storage. In terms of memory improvement, it can help to understand how the

retrieval process relates to encoding and storage. Consider the relationship between

retrieval and encoding. If you encoded something visually, but are trying to

retrieve it acoustically, you will have difficulty remembering. Like encoding,information can be retrieved through visualizing it, thinking about the meaning, or

imagining the sound, etc. The more ways information has been encoded, the moreways there are for retrieving it. Imagine that you are taking a test in which you are

given a definition and asked to recall the word it describes. You may recall the

page of your notes that the word was on and visualize the word, or you might say

the definition to yourself and remember yourself repeating the word. Thus,memory is aided by encoding and retrieving information in multiple ways.


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Retrieval relates to storage as well, Obviously the memory has to be stored in order

for you to retrieve it, but knowing howit was stored can help. This is where

elaboration and processing come in. When attempting to retrieve information, it

helps to think about related ideas. For example, you are trying to remember a

chemistry formula during an exam. Although you are able to visualize the page ofyour chemistry notes, you cannot recall the exact formula. You do remember,

however, that this same formula was used in the biology class you took lastsemester. As you think about that class, you are able to recall the formula. This is

one reason why intentionally organizing information in your memory when you are

learning it helps you recall it later.

SUMMARY

Attention ----> Encoding ----> Storage ----> Retrieval

Here are the steps of memory discussed thus far. First, you select the information

to which you will attend. You then code the information for storage (where it can

be practiced and processed more deeply). Later, when needed, information is

retrieved by using a search strategy that parallels how the information was codedand stored.

FORGETTING

Although information can be stored in long-term memory for extended periods of

time, "memory decay" does take place. In other words, we can forget what welearn. In fact, we forget things quickest shortly after we learn them. This has two

implications in terms of improving our memory. First, as disheartening as it is, you

will often learn a great deal more than you can retain in the long run. But, before

you lose heart entirely, keep in mind that the memories can be retained with a little

effort. So, the second implication for improving memory involves maintaining

memories with the least amount of effort. In order to retain information in memory,you must practice, think about, and sometimes relearn things. Every time you

practice and relearn the information, you are reinforcing it in your memory. Taking

a few moments to do frequent, but brief, reviews will save you time by helping youretain what you have learned. For example, it's a good idea to make rehearsal part

of your reading and note-taking regimen. When you complete a reading

assignment or a note-taking session, take a few minutes to rehearse the material asa way of moving the information from short-term to long-term memory. Not that

this practice alone is sufficient to prepare for most test, but it will enhance yourunderstanding and recall of the material, facilitating serious study.

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Human Memory The Science
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Theories and Processes underlying memory, memorization improvement are a few

basic concepts. Although we will not go into extensive detail about theories of

memory, we will present some of the basic ideas to help you understand why

certain techniques work.

Brain mind memory encoding, storage, retention, and retrieval

Understand your brains natural memory rhythms and take advantage of them to

improve your memory, memorization skills and enhance your learningcapabilities.

Memory memorization and related learning principles

Improving memory - memory enhancing techniques methods for improved

memorization

An Empirical Investigation Into the Effect of Beta Frequency Binaural Beat Audio

Signals on Four Measures of Human Memory


Mnemonic Techniques and Specific Memory Tricks to Improve memory and

memorization techniques Tricks to improve memory and memorization

Generic Long Term Memory memorization

Hermann Ebbinghaus- Memory learning memorization maximizing recall retention
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Monks, Shamans, Drum Beats, Primitive Cultures, Rhythmic Sound & The Brain

Studies have shown that vibrations from rhythmic sounds have a profound effect on brain activity. In

shamanic traditions, drums were used in periodic rhythm to transport the shaman into other realms of reality.

The vibrations from this constant rhythm affected the brain in a very specific manner, allowing the shaman to

achieve an altered state of mind and journey out of his or her body .

Brain pattern studies conducted by researcher Melinda Maxfield into the (SSC) Shamanic State of

Consciousness found that the steady rhythmic beat of the drum struck four and one half times per second was

the key to transporting a shaman into the deepest part of his shamanic state of consciousness. It is no

coincidence that 4.5 beats, or cycles per second corresponds to the trance like state of theta brain wave activity.

In direct correlation, we see similar effects brought on by the constant and rhythmic drone of Tibetan Buddhist

chants, which transport the monks and even other listeners into realms of blissful meditation.

The gentle pulsating rhythms (binaural beat) of our brain synchronization tapes act in a similar fashion, yet

because the frequencies are computer generated, they are precise, consistent and can be targeted to induce

highly specific and desired brain states. Much

like tuning a radio to get a particular station, our

brain synchronization tapes can induce a variety of brain states. Effecting Alertness, Concentration, Focus &Cognition Relaxation, Visualization, & Creativity Intuition, Memory, Meditation Vivid Visual Imagery Deep

Sleep, Detached Awareness

There are frequencies/rhythms which when dominant in the brain correlate with a specific state of mind.

There are generally 4 groupings of brain waves:

1. Beta waves range between 13-40 HZ. The beta state is associated with peak concentration, heightened

alertness and visual acuity. Nobel Prize Winner, Sir Francis Crick and other scientists believe that the 40HZ

beta frequency used on many Brain Sync tapes may be key to the act of cognition.

2. Alpha waves range between 7-12 HZ. This is a place of deep relaxation, but not quite meditation. In Alpha,

we begin to access the wealth of creativity that lies just below our conscious awareness - it is the gateway, theentry point that leads into deeper states of consciousness. Alpha is also the home of the window frequency

known as the Schumann Resonance, which is the resonant frequency of the earth's electromagnetic field.

3. Theta waves range between 4-7 HZ. Theta is one of the more elusive and extraordinary realms we can

explore. It is also known as the twilight state which we normally only experience fleetingly as we rise up out of

the depths of delta upon waking, or drifting off to sleep. In theta we are in a waking dream, vivid imagery

flashes before the mind's eye and we are receptive to information beyond our normal conscious awareness.

During the Theta state many find they are capable of comprehending advanced concepts and relationships that

become incomprehensible when returning to Alpha or Beta states. Theta has also been identified as the gateway

to learning and memory. Theta meditation increases creativity, enhances learning, reduces stress and awakens

intuition and other extrasensory perception skills. When the brain is in Theta it appears to balance

sodium/potassium ratios which are responsible for the transport of chemicals through brain cell membranes.

This appears to play a role in rejuvenating the fatigued brain.

4. Delta waves range between 0-4 HZ. Delta is associated with deep sleep. In addition, certain frequencies in

the delta range trigger the release of Growth Hormone beneficial for healing and regeneration. This is why

sleep, deep restorative sleep is so essential to the healing process.


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MEMORY AND RELATED LEARNING

PRINCIPLES


The Principles of Short-Term and Long-Term Memory. This principle of long-

term memory may well be at work when you recite orwrite the ideas and facts thatyou read. As you recite or write you are holding each idea in mind for the four or

five seconds that are needed for the temporary memory to be converted into apermanent one. In other words, the few minutes that it takes for you to review

andthink about what you are trying to learn is the minimum length of time thatneuroscientists believe is necessary to allow thought to go into a lasting, more

easily retrievable memory.

Recognition is an easier stage of memory than the recallstage. For example, in an

examination, it is much easier to recognize an answer to a question if five options

are listed, than to recallthe answer without the options listed. But getting beyond

just recognizing the correct answer when you see it is usually necessary for long-term memory, for the more we can recall about information the better we usually

remember it.

Understanding New Material. First and most important, you must make sure that

you understand new material before trying to remember it. A good technique to

ensure understanding is to recite or write the author's ideas in yourown words. If

you cannot, then you do not understand them. The conclusion: you cannot

remember what you do not understand. In other words, you cannot form a clear

and correct memory trace from a fuzzy, poorly understood concept.

In the classroom, do not hesitate to ask the instructor to explain further a point that

is not clear to you. If the point is unclear to you, there is a good chance that it is

unclear to others, so you will not be wasting anyone's time. Furthermore, mostinstructors appreciate the opportunity to answer questions.

Getting it right the first time. We have learned that all remembering depends on

forming an original, clear neural trace in the brain in the first place. These initial

impressions are vitally important because the mind clings just as tenaciously to

incorrect impressions as it does to correct impressions. Then we have to unlearnand relearn. Incorrect information is so widespread that Mark Twain once wrote,

"Education consists mainly in what we have unlearned."
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Evaluate the Learning. Another way to improve retention is through evaluation.

After you have studied, work the matter over in your mind. Examine and analyze

it; become familiar with it like a friend. Use comparison or contrast: how is this

topic like or different from related topics? If the learning concerns things

conjectural, do you tend to agree or disagree? Are there aspects of the subjectwhich you can criticize? Analytical thinking encourages you to consider the matter

from various aspects and this kind of mental manipulation makes you moreknowledgeable. For all these reasons, recall is significantly improved.

The Principle of Over learning.

After you have recited a lesson long enough to say it perfectly, if you continue

reciting it a few times more, you will over learn it. A well known psychologist and

researcher, Ebbinghaus, has reported that each additional recitation (after you

really know the material) engraves the mental trace deeper and deeper, thusestablishing a base for long-term retention. For many people over learning is

difficult to practice because, by the time they achieve bare mastery, there is littletime left and they are eager to drop the subject and go on to something else. But

reciting the material even just one more time significantly increases retention, sotry to remember this and utilize the technique when you can.

The Principle of Recitation

There is no principle that is more important or more effective than recitation for

transferring material from the short-term memory to the long-term memory. Forone thing, you are obviously in the process ofrepeating the information. Recitation

can take several forms -- thinking about it, writing it out, or saying it out loud."Thinking about it" is potentially the least effective because it gives us the least

amount of reinforcement since writing or speaking involve more electrical musclemovement messages to the brain which are known to increase mental response and

recording. Vocal, "out loud" recitation is usually the most effective single

technique for review because it employs more of the senses than any other review

technique (utilizing both auditory and vocal senses.) If, for example, when

reviewing your notes immediately after class the reviewing is done by vocalrecitation, you will not only be consolidating the new information but alsostrengthening the neural traces made to your brain.

What is recitation? Recitation is simply saying aloud the ideas that you want toremember. For example, after you have gathered your information in note form

and have categorized and clustered your items, you recite them. Here's how: youcover your notes, then recite aloud the covered material. After reciting, expose the

notes and check for accuracy. You should not attempt to recite the material word

for word; rather your reciting should be in the words and manner that you would

ordinarily use if you were explaining the material to a friend. When you cansay it,then you know it. (This is why it is best NOT to recite directly from the text.)


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How recitation works. Recitation transfers material to the secondary or long-term

memory. While you are reading the words in a sentence or paragraph, theprimary

memory (short-term memory) holds them in mind long enough for you to gain the

sense of the sentence or paragraph. However, the primary memory has a very

limited capacity, and as you continue to read, you displace the words and ideas ofthe initial paragraphs with the words of subsequent paragraphs. This is one reason

for not remembering everything in the first part of the chapter by the time we reachthe end of the chapter when we read continually without taking a break or taking

time to review what we have already read.

It is only when we recite or contemplate the idea conveyed by a sentence or

paragraph that the idea has a chance (not guaranteed) of moving on into

thesecondary memory (a long-term storage facility).

All verbal information goes first into the primary memory (short-term memory).When it is rehearsed (recited), part of it goes into our secondary (long-term)

memory. The rest of it, usually the part we are least interested in, returns to theprimary memory and is then forgotten.

Whether new information is "stored" or "dumped" depends, then, on our reciting itout loud and on our interest in the information.

After this

number of days

The amount remembered by students

who did no review was

The amount remembered by

students who reviewed was

7 33% 83%

63 14% 70%

Remembering. As a student, one of your main concerns is to retain old learning's

while you continue to acquire new ones. Do we remember more when we begin to

study a subject or after we already know something about it? According to severalrecent studies, learning which involves memorization of a unit of material begins

slowly, then goes faster, and finally levels off. In other words, the amount learned

per unit of time is small at first, then increases, and then becomes small again. This

finding contrasts with older studies which showed that learning was rapid at first,

then became slower until it leveled off.

Even though a person continues to study, he may expect to encounter periods when

there seems to be little or no gain. Suchplateaus in learning may be due to severalcauses such as fatigue, loss of interest, or diminishing returns from using the same

inefficient methods. Another explanation of plateaus is that theyrepresentpausesbetween stages of understanding; when the student acquires a new


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Cognition is the act of knowing, and cognitive psychology is the study of all human activities related to knowledge.These activities include attention,creativity, memory, perception, problem solving, thinking, and the use of language.Until about 1970 the cognitive approach had little impact outside the experimental laboratory. In the years since then,however, various cognitive theoriesof personality have been developed, as well as information-processing analyses of intelligence tests and a number ofcognitively oriented therapies (seecognitive therapy).

Cognitive psychology arose partly as a reaction to behaviorism. The behaviorist insistence that only stimuli andresponses lay within the scope ofscience had long prevented the effective study of higher mental processes. The establishment of cognitive psychologybroke this taboo.

Characteristic MethodsIn cognitive psychology the human mind is conceived of as a structured system for handling information. According tomost cognitive theories,information picked up by the senses is analyzed, stored, recoded, and subsequently used in various ways; theseactivities are called informationprocesses. They need not be represented in consciousness; cognitive psychology relies very little on consciousintrospection. Instead, experiments aredesigned to take advantage of various objective indicators of information processing: reaction-time measurement,response selection, performance inmemory tests, and so on. Mathematical and logical analyses of such data are used to construct models of theunderlying processes. These models arenot intended to represent actual brain mechanisms. Although it is assumed that all mental activity has somephysiological basis, that basis is of little

concern to most cognitive psychologists. Just as the program of a computer can be described without knowledge of itsphysical construction, it is hopedthat the program of mental information-processing can be understood without regard to the machinery of the brain.The analogy between brain and computer, or mind and program, has influenced cognitive psychology in many ways.Concepts such as code, informationstorage and retrieval, buffer, and executive routine frequently appear in cognitive theories. Moreover, some cognitivepsychologists regard their field andartificial intelligence as coordinate sciences that borrow concepts from one other (see cognitive science). Not allsubscribe to this view, however. Somefeel that the differences between human and artificial intelligence are so great that the analogy is misleading.

Topics of InvestigationAlthough the historical roots of cognitive psychology go back to introspective psychology and associationism, itsmodern form took shape in the 1950s.Donald Eric Broadbent's Perception and Communication (1958) was the first book entirely devoted to humaninformation processing. It introduced thenotion of several distinct kinds of storage systems (memories) of limited capacity and of attention as a mechanism forfiltering incoming information. A

wide range of new techniques for the study of information processing was soon devised and led to a number ofimportant discoveries. Using brief visualpresentations of letters and numbers, for example, George Sperling demonstrated the existence of a special visualinformation store (subsequentlycalled iconic memory) with almost unlimited capacity but very short duration. It is now supposed that recoding fromiconic memory to more lasting formsof storage takes place by both verbal and nonverbal means.Subsequent research resulted in the further division of memory into various parts or types. A short-term memory ofsharply limited capacity, which isprimarily verbal and shows rapid forgetting, has been distinguished from a long-term memory that shows littleevidence of any limitations at all. Specialkinds of memory for visual material have also been postulated, and techniques now permit the objective study ofvisual imagery. Recent research hasdealt not only with episodic memory for personal experiences but also with semantic memory, which is essentiallyone's store of knowledge.Reaction-time methods have been used to explore the structure of semantic memory, and there have been a numberof attempts to model that structure

with computer programs. The success of these attempts remains controversial.Several other areas of interest have concerned cognitive psychologists from the first. One of these is patternrecognition: how does the informationprocessingsystem categorize and distinguish among objects? Another is attention: how and at what level does the individualselect among the availablealternative sources of information? There has also been continued work on the higher mental processes: decisionmaking, problem solving, and thinking.Much of the work has involved computer simulation as well as experiment.At first, cognitive psychologists were primarily concerned with explaining the phenomena uncovered in their ownlaboratories. Their work soon broughtthem into contact with other intellectual traditions, however, and these contacts have led to new theoretical initiatives.The field of psycholinguistics, forexample, was created by applying experimental methods to the study of language. It has been heavily influenced byconcurrent developments inlinguistics itself, especially the work of Noam Chomsky.The development of cognitive processes in the growing child has also become a subfield in its own right, stronglyaffected by the work of Jean Piaget

and his students. The perceptual theories of Eleanor and James Gibson use a different definition of information andreject the concept of information


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processing entirely. Although these developments have given rise to new theoretical disagreements among cognitivepsychologists, they have also givena renewed impetus to the field as a whole.

Ulric NeisserFurther Reading:Altarriba, J., ed., Cognition and Culture (1993).Galotti, K., Cognitive Psychology In and Out of the Laboratory(1994).Honeck, R., ed., Introductory Readings in Cognitive Psychology(1994).

Neisser, U., Cognition and Reality(1976).Grolier Online print version http://gme.grolier.com.ccny-proxy1.libr.ccny.cuny.edu/page?tn=/printemail/p_see_article...1 of 2 7/17/09 1:22 AMSternberg, R., The Nature of Cognition (1999).Strube, G., and Wonder, K., eds., The Cognitive Psychology of Knowledge (1993).

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