(Articulo Ingles) (2002) La Relación Entre El Uso de La Internet y El Desarrollo Social en La...

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The Relationship Between Use of the Internet and Social Development

in Adolescence

By

Erica I. Heitner, M.S.Ed.

A Doctoral Project Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Psychology

in the Department of Psychology at Pace University

New York

2002

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UMI Number. 3065540

Copyright 2002 by Heitner, Erica I.

All rights reserved.

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ProQuest Information and Learning Company 300 North Zeeb Road

P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346


PSY.D PROJECT FINAL APPROVAL FORM

NAME: ______Erica Heitner__________________________

TITLE OF PROJECT:_____ The Relationship Between Use of the Internet

and Social Development in Adolescence

DOCTORAL PROJECT COMMITTEE:

PROJECT ADVISOR: Florence L. Denmark. Ph.D.__________________Name

Robert Scott Pace Distinguished Professor Emerita Tide

Pace University____________________________Affiliation

PROJECT CONSULTANT: Alfred W. Ward. Ph.D.________Name

Associate Professor of Psychology Tide

Pace University_______________Affiliation

FINAL APPROVAL OF COMPLETED PROJECT:

I have read the final version of the doctoral project and certify that it meets the relevant requirements for the Psy.D. degree in School-Clinical Child Psychology.

Project Advisor’s Signal

Project.Consultant’s Signature

Date

22rDate


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Completing this doctoral project and navigating the challenges of graduate

school would not have been possible without the guidance, reassurance, and

support provided by many important people:

Florence L. Denmark: Ydh have been, and continue to be, an outstanding

mentor and friend to me. I cannot thank you enough for all your support, sage

advice, and guidance throughout graduate school. You motivated me to

successfully complete my doctoral project and were always available to provide

important feedback and valuable suggestions. This project surely would not have

been completed so quickly without you! Working as your research assistant has

been an incredible experience and I am so appreciative of the many opportunities

you have provided me.

Alfred W. Ward: Thank you for being accessible and available to provide

assistance in the development of my project, the creation of my survey, and the

statistical analysis of my results. You always provided thoughtful comments, clear,

helpful explanations, and important, practical advice. I am especially grateful for

the reassurance you provided the many times when I became anxious about

completing this project!

Steve Salbod: I greatly appreciate the time you devoted to helping me with

this doctoral project. Your assistance in setting up my database was a crucial

component in the completion of this project. I have enjoyed working with you in

the Psychology Department; thank you for providing so many laughs and

introducing me to many wonderful books, films, and programs.

iii


Aqueda, Janette, and Betsey: You are truly the glue that holds the

Psychology Department together and it was a pleasure working with you during my

days as a Research Assistant Thank you for helping smooth over any rough

patches that I encountered on the bumpy road of graduate school.

Bonnie Altman and Eve Kleeger: I hope you both know how invaluable

you have been in my life! Thank you so much for navigating me through graduate

school, making sure I always registered for the right courses and studied for exams,

providing answers to countless questions, offering emotional support and serving

as an outlet to vent fhistrations and celebrate triumphs. I am so very fortunate to

have friends as wonderful as you.

Mom, Dad, and Jody: You stood by me throughout many difficult moments

of graduate school and your support and faith never wavered. You allowed me to

work at my own pace, while providing an endless supply of encouragement love,

and even some unsolicited advice! You took pride in my accomplishments and

always made me feel supported and valued. For all you have given me, lots of love

and thanks.

iv


TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii

LIST OF TABLES vii

ABSTRACT viii

I. INTRODUCTION 1

II. LITERATURE REVIEW 6

Adolescent Social Development 6

Social Skills 7

Social Withdrawal 8

Social Anxiety 9

Psychological Impact of Internet Use 11

Internet Use and Social Withdrawal 11

Internet Use and Social Skills 17

Statement of Problem and Purpose of Study 22

Hypotheses 23

III. METHOD 24

Participants 24

Materials 24

Activities Questionnaire for Students 24

Personality Inventory for Youth 25

Procedure 26

V


CHAPTER PAGE

IV. RESULTS 28

Description of the Sample 28

Analysis o f Hypotheses 36

Results of Correlational Analysis 36

Additional Analyses 42

Results of 2 x 3 ANOVA 42

Results of Post-hoc Analysis 42

V. DISCUSSION 45

Summary 45

Limitations of the Present Study 49

Implications for School-Clinical Child Psychology 50

Areas for Further Research 51

REFERENCES 53

APPENDICES 60

A. Activities Questionnaire for Students 60

B. Personality Inventory for Youth: Social Skills Deficits Scale 64

C. Personality Inventory for Youth: Social Withdrawal Scale 65

D. Consent Form 66

vi


LIST OF TABLES

TABLE PAGE

I. Location of Internet Use 28

2. Length of Internet Access 29

3. Internet Activities 30

4. On-line Interactions 31

5. Frequency of Internet Use 32

6. Type of Internet Use 34

7. Categories of Internet Users 36

8. Relationships between Internet Use and Social Development Variables 38

9. F Ratios for Gender by Type of Internet Use ANOVA for 42

Social Development Variables

10. Social Development Variables by Type of Internet Use 44

vii


ABSTRACT

Personal use of the Internet has increased dramatically over the past several

years, and the number of American households with access to the Internet

continues to multiply at a rapid speed. One of the fastest growing segments of

Internet users are teenagers. To investigate the impact of this technology on

adolescent social development, this study examined the relationship between

Internet use and social development using a sample of adolescents. Data was

collected by administering an Activities Questionnaire for Students and the Social

Withdrawal scale and Social Skills Deficits scales from the Personality Inventory

for Youth (PIY) to 104 adolescents in a private school setting. The Activities

Questionnaire for Students, a self-report instrument designed by the researcher,

was used to measure both frequency and type of Internet use. Frequency of Internet

use was assessed by the number of hours typically spent on-line and type of

Internet use was determined by considering the level of social involvement

required by each of seven specific Internet activities: e-mailing, going to sites on

the World Wide Web, participating in Chat Rooms, communicating with others

through Instant Messenger, playing single-player on-line games, playing multi

player on-line games, and posting to message boards. Six social development

variables were used: social introversion, isolation, and social withdrawal were

measured by the Social Withdrawal scale of the PIY, and limited peer status,

conflict with peers, and social skills deficits were measured by the Social Skills

Deficits scale of the PIY. Pearson product-moment correlations were used to test

the relationship between frequency of Internet use and the six social development

viii


variables and between type of Internet use and the six social development

variables. Results indicated that time spent on the Internet during the weekdays

was significantly negatively correlated with limited peer status. Time spent on the

World Wide Web was significantly positively correlated with limited peer status

and social skills deficits. Time spent on E-mail was significantly positively

correlated with limited peer status, social skills deficits, social introversion, and

social withdrawal. Time spent in Chat Rooms was significantly positively

correlated with limited peer status and social skills deficits. Time spent on Instant

Messenger was significantly negatively correlated with limited peer status, social

introversion, and social withdrawal. Time spent on Multi-player On-line games

was significantly negatively correlated with limited peer status. In addition to

calculating the correlations between each specific Internet activity and the social

development variables, three categories of Internet use were created for statistical

analysis. “Not Social” Internet users primarily surfed the World Wide Web and

played single-player on-line games, “Asynchronous social” Internet users primarily

communicated with others through e-mail and posted to message boards, and

“Synchronous social” Internet users primarily communicated with others through

Instant Messenger, participated in Chat Rooms, and played multi-player on-line

games. A gender by type of Internet use 2 x 3 ANOVA found a main effect for

type of Internet use for limited peer status, social skills deficits, social introversion,

and social withdrawal. The results of this investigation can be utilized by school

and child-clinical psychologists to identify adolescents who may be experiencing

social difficulties.

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INTRODUCTION

The past several years have borne witness to an incredible surge in the use

of the Internet. Consider the following statistics: The share of homes with Internet

access rose from 26.2% in December 1998 to 41.5% in August 2000, an increase

of 58%. The share of Internet users rose from 32.7% in December 1998 to 44.4%

in August 2000, an increase of 35.8%. In August 2000 more than half of all

households had computers, an increase of 42.1% from December 1998. In August

2000 there were 116.5 million Americans online, an increase of 31.9 million users

from 20 months prior (U.S. Department of Commerce, 2000). The Media in the

Home 2000 survey discovered that in the year 2000 more households had Internet

subscriptions (52%) than newspaper subscriptions (42%) (Woodard & Gridina,

2000). According to current 2002 statistics published by the U.S. Department of

Commerce there are nearly 150 million Americans who are going online (Ubois,

2002).

Also on the rise is the percentage of households with children who have

computers and online access. A 1999 survey entitled “Kids and Media at the New

Millennium” conducted by the Henry J. Kaiser Foundation found that 21% of

children ages 8 to 18 had computers in their bedrooms (Leland, 2000). According

to data collected by the Alliance for Converging Technologies, in the year 2000,

30% of children had Internet access in their homes (Tapscott, 1998). Today more

than 80% of households with computers are linked to the Internet and nine out of

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ten children now have access to the Internet either at home or in school (Thomas,

2001).

More specifically, one of the fastest growing segments of Internet users are

teenagers. In fact, 75% of adolescents between the ages of 14 and 17 are now

online (Ubois, 2002). According to a 2002 America Online survey o f6,700 parents

and teenagers, children ages 12-17 spend an average of 12 hours and 15 minutes

online each week (Thomas, 2002). Geographically Pittsburgh ranked highest in

teen Internet use, with 15 hours, 49 minutes of use per week, and New York City

came in second place, with 14 hours, 54 minutes of teen Internet use per week. A

2002 Gallup Survey revealed that children between the ages of 8 and 17 would

choose the Internet over the television, telephone, and radio if they could only have

one medium of entertainment (Newsweek, 2002) Responding to the revolutionary

impact of the Internet and other forms of digital technologies on today’s children,

Tapscott proclaimed that the children of today should be known as “The Net

Generation” (1998). N-Geners, as he calls them, are growing up in a digital era in

which “(they) are so bathed in bits that they think it’s all part of the natural

landscape. To them, the digital technology is no more intimidating than a VCR or

toaster” (1998, p. 1).

Psychologists are beginning to explore issues relating to children’s and

adolescent’s use of the Internet. Instead of taking a simplistic view of Internet use,

they are examining both the potential risks and potential benefits. On the positive

side, the Internet contains a wealth of information that can be accessed for

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3

educational purposes. Today a child can turn to the Internet to conduct research on

virtually any topic of their choice. Some of the noted risks of children’s Internet

use include possible exposure to child predators online and exposure to

inappropriate material (Bremer & Rauch, 1998). For example, there is an

abundance of pornography on the Internet that is easily accessed by children and

adolescents. This has raised many ethical and legal issues regarding censorship,

and several censoring programs, including SurfWatch and Net Nanny, have been

created to allow parents to restrict their children’s Web access. Parents are also

concerned about their children’s disclosure of private family information over the

web (Turow & Nir, 2000).

With a virtually unlimited world available to children and adolescents on

the Internet, a question being investigated is: What do kids actually do with

computers? According to the “Kids and the New Millennium” study conducted by

the Kaiser Foundation (Leland, 2000), children spend their computer time

engaging in many different activities. Twenty-six percent of their computer time is

spent playing games, and 22% of their computer time is devoted to schoolwork.

Internet time is divided amongst Chat rooms (10%), Web surfing (15%), and

Using e-mail (9%). Tapscott (1998) collected information from over 300 N-Geners

through a series of “Growing up Digital” online forums. He found that children

and adolescents use computers for entertainment, learning, communicating and

shopping. A study of 291 elementary school students examined the frequency of

Internet uses at home according to gender. The following results were obtained: E-


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mail: girls 17%, boys 22%; Net Surfing: girls 28%, boys 43%; Chat rooms: girls

10%, boys 7%; and Information retrieval: girls 29%, boys 43% (Kafai & Sutton,

1999). Most recently, America Online’s 2002 survey discovered that e-mailing

(81%) and sending instant messages (70%) are the top Internet activities among

children ages 12-17. Fifty-eight percent of the teens in their sample use the

Internet to do homework, 55% download music off the Internet, and 70% are

involved in playing on-line games (Thomas, 2002).

Another study found that nearly three out of four online teenagers use the

online program “instant messenger” (Thomas, 2001). This form of communication,

which allows two individuals to instantly send text messages to one another while

both are online, is dramatically altering the way that teenagers communicate and

develop socialization skills. Twenty percent of this sample considered instant

messenger to be their primary method of communicating with their peers. Many

respondents (37% of the sample) indicated that an instant messenger conversation

would allow them to say something to a friend that they would not otherwise say in

person or on the telephone. In this capacity, Instant Messenger may be breaking

down social barriers between individuals and facilitating more truthful exchanges.

Another change brought about by instant messenger is the new possibility for

teenagers to carry on multiple conversations simultaneously, a skill that has been

termed “split attention.”

The widespread availability of the Internet among today’s teenagers raises

many compelling questions about how this technology may be impacting the


process of adolescent socialization. With several new methods of social interaction

and communication, the Internet has the potential to dramatically alter the way that

adolescents develop social skills. By providing a different space for social

exchanges, where teens can choose to communicate anonymously, carry on

multiple conversations simultaneously, or withdraw from social discourse

altogether, cyberspace is inevitably changing the course of adolescent social

development.


6

LITERATURE REVIEW

Adolescent Social Development

Psychologists are beginning to explore ways that use of the Internet affects

children’s and adolescent’s social and psychological development. Adolescence is

an important developmental stage in which relationships with peers begin to

eclipse relationships with parents (Laursen, 1996). During adolescence the nature

and significance of close relationships start to shift. The distinction between

voluntary and involuntary relationships becomes more salient, and as a result,

adolescents go to great lengths to avoid conflict in their close relationships with

others. Contact with peers increases while contact with adults simultaneously

decreases (Schaeffer, 1996). Sullivan (1953) discussed the need for interpersonal

intimacy that arises during adolescence and highlighted the significance of

“chumships” in healthy social development.

Several researchers have identified the characteristics of close relationships

in adolescence. Hartup (1993) identified reciprocity, commitment and equality as

critical components of teen friendships. At the start of the teenage years,

adolescents enter an “empathic stage” in which they begin to care about what

happens to their friends (Reisman & Shorr, 1978). Self-disclosure and mutual

understanding become important aspects of friendships in adolescence (Reisman &

Shorr, 1978), as peers become a significant source of emotional support during the

teenage years (Levitt, Guacci-Franco, & Levitt, 1993). Studies using the Network


of Relationships Inventory revealed that as children progressed from grades 2

through 8, intimacy and companionship increased with friends, but decreased with

family members, classmates and adults. Across grades 4 through 10, a composite

index score, which included intimacy, companionship, affection, and reliable

alliance, increased among friends, whereas it decreased with parents, siblings, and

teachers.

It is clear that peer relationships play a crucial role in the lives of

adolescents; therefore, difficulty forming peer relationships can have detrimental

psychological effects on children and adolescents. Children can experience many

different types of social difficulties. Youngsters who lack the skills to successfully

negotiate social situations may become nervous in social situations. Discomfort

with the social milieu can lead children and adolescents to avoid social

opportunities and become introverted or withdrawn.

Social Skills

Social skills are crucial for the successful navigation of the childhood and

teenage years. Adolescents who are socially competent possess many talents and

abilities that promote healthy social functioning (Barber & Erickson, 2001).

Socially skilled adolescents tend to be active participants in their social worlds;

they feel a sense of social responsibility, behave in positive, prosocial ways, strive

towards achievement, are friendly towards others, exhibit self-determination, and

strike a balance between their own goals and the goals of others (Baumrind, 1978;

Crocenkenberg, Jackson & Langrock, 1996; Garmezy, 1971; Pandina, Labouvie,

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8

Johnson, & Raskin White, 1990). Children who are socially competent possess the

skills needed to initiate social interactions with peers, maintain social interactions,

and resolve interpersonal conflicts (Asher, Renshaw, & Hymel, 1982). These

qualities place socially competent individuals in a favorable position to attain

happiness, develop meaningful relationships, and achieve successful futures. In

contrast, the emotional and behavioral correlates associated with individuals who

possess deficits in social competence are decidedly inauspicious. Research has

linked reduced social competence with unhappiness, learning disabilities, and

externalizing and internalizing disorders (McGhee & Williams, 1991; Finger &

Silverman, 1966; Levendosky, Okun & Parker, 1995; Scheier & Botvin, 1998).

Social Withdrawal

Socially withdrawn children are typically characterized as behaviorally

inhibited and unassertive in social interactions (Rubin, LeMare, & Lollis, 1990).

These children tend to shy away from peer interactions, which often leads to

isolation and rejection by peers who perceive them to be unwillingness to join in

group interactions (Rubin & Coplan, 1992). Research demonstrates that socially

withdrawn children are at significant risk for poor psychological outcomes. Hymel,

Rubin, Rowden, and LeMare (1990) found that rejected children who were socially

withdrawn at seven-years-old went on to develop internalizing problems three year

later, which included fearfulness, anxiety, and overall withdrawal. In another

study, socially withdrawn nine-year old children reported loneliness and depression

four years later (Rubin & Mills, 1991). Social withdrawal in childhood is believed


9

to impede the development of social skills, thwart the establishment of friendships,

and diminish self-esteem (Rubin, LeMare & Lollis 1990; Vemberg et al., 1992).

Social Anxiety

Social anxiety in childhood can also have detrimental long-term effects.

When discomfort with social situations interferes with daily functioning, an

individual might meet criteria for social phobia, also known as social anxiety

disorder. The specific features of social phobia, outlined in the DSM-IV, include;

1) A marked and persistent fear of one or more social or performance situations in which the person is exposed to unfamiliar people or to possible scrutiny by others. The individual fears that he or she will act in a way (or show anxiety symptoms) that will be humiliating or embarrassing. In children, there must be evidence of the capacity for age appropriate social relationships with familiar people and the anxiety must occur in peer settings, not just in interactions with adults.

2) Exposure to the feared social situation almost invariably provokes anxiety, which may take the form of a situationally bound or situationally predisposed Panic Attack. In children, the anxiety may be expressed by crying, tantrums, freezing, or shrinking from social situations with unfamiliar people.

3) The person recognizes that the fear is excessive or unreasonable. In children, this feature may be absent.

4) The feared social or performance situations are avoided or else are endured with intense anxiety or distress.

5) The avoidance, anxious participation, or distress in the feared social or performance situation(s) interferes significantly with the person’s normal routine, occupational (academic) functioning, or social activities or relationships, or there is marked distress about having the phobia. (DSM-IV, 1994, pp 416-417).


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Additional characteristics commonly linked with social phobia include

“hypersensitivity to criticism, negative evaluation, or rejection; difficulty being

assertive; and low self-esteem or feelings of inferiority (DSM-IV, 1994, p. 413).

The mean age of onset of social anxiety disorder is 15.5 years old and persons

suffering from this disorder commonly report shyness and avoidance of social

interactions (Liebowitz, 1999). According to the DSM-IV (1994) social phobia or

social anxiety disorder typically emerges in the mid-teenage years, however, the

roots o f the disorder may be found in a shy, withdrawn childhood. The disorder

tends to persist throughout an individual's lifetime, though the symptoms may

fluctuate according the current stressors or positive experiences in a person's life.

Prevalence rates for social phobia range from 3% to 13% in the general population.

Children suffering from social phobia may present with poor school performance,

refusal to attend school, and general avoidance of social interactions and dating.

While studies suggest that social phobia is more prevalent in females than males,

most clinical samples have an equal distribution of both sexes (DSM-IV, 1994).

Individuals afflicted with social anxiety disorder often experience difficulty

attaining educational success, keeping stable jobs, maintaining relationships with

others, and achieving financial stability (Liebowitz, 1999). Their social support

networks are generally impoverished and they are less likely to get married

(DSM-IV, 1994). Persons with social phobia are also at risk for dropping out of

school, unemployment, and extreme loneliness (DSM-IV, 1994). As a result,

social anxiety disorder is often experienced with comorbid depression (Last,


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Strauss, & Francis, 1987). In addition, research has linked friendlessness in

childhood and adolescence with emotional problems, social skills deficits, poor

school adjustment, and fewer educational gains (Schaeffer, 1996). Fortunately,

early recognition and treatment of social anxiety disorder can prevent the

extremely detrimental long-term outcomes mentioned above (Beidel, 1998).

Psychological Impact o f Internet Use

While there is much speculation concerning the psychological effects of the

Internet on its users there is a scarcity of empirical research on this topic. I will

present a review of the current available literature, including both speculative and

empirically based articles.

Internet Use and Social Withdrawal

Kraut, Patterson, Lundmark, Kiesler, Mukopadhyay, and Scherlis published

a controversial study in the American Psychologist in 1998 entitled “Internet

Paradox: A social technology that reduces social involvement and psychological

well-being?” Recognizing the tremendous impact of the Internet in our society,

Kraut et al conducted a study to determine whether the Internet is increasing or

decreasing levels of social involvement and to examine the impact of the Internet

on psychological functioning. The researchers employed a longitudinal research

design, collecting data at various time intervals, which allowed them to make

causal statements regarding the effect of Internet use on social involvement and

psychological well-being.


12

The HomeNet study, as it was called, utilized a participant population of 93

families residing in the Pittsburgh area of Pennsylvania. Participating families

were provided with a computer and an Internet account, which included electronic

mail (e-mail) addresses, for use in their homes. Demographic information was

collected and self-report measures of social involvement and psychological well

being were given before and after subjects were provided with access to the

Internet. Special logging programs recorded their Internet usage during the

duration of the study, which included the total number of hours they spent on the

Internet, the time spend on the World Wide Web, and the number of e-mail

messages sent. Social involvement was measured by 4 different variables: family

communication, size of local social network, size of distant social network, and

social support. Family communication was assessed by asking participants to

estimate how many minutes they spent talking to each member of their family each

day. The size of the local and distant social networks was measured by asking

participants to indicate “the number of people in the Pittsburgh area whom you

socialize with at least once a month” and “the number of people outside of the

Pittsburgh area whom you seek out to talk with or to visit at least once a year.” The

Interpersonal Support Evaluation List was used to collect data on social support. In

terms of psychological well-being, the researchers chose to measure loneliness,

stress, and depression since these three areas have been associated with social

involvement. They utilized the UCLA Loneliness Scale for loneliness, the Hassles

Scale for stress, and the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale for


13

depression. These measures were administered prior to the initiation of the study

and at one and two year intervals after the families began their participation.

The researchers used path analysis to test the relationship between the

variables at three different time intervals - before the study began, while the study

was being conducted, and after the study culminated. Their results indicated that

greater use of the Internet was linked to small, but statistically significant,

decreases in social involvement (notably the family communication and size of

local social network) and increases in loneliness and depression. One of the most

compelling findings was that these effects were the most pronounced among the

teenage participants. The interaction of Internet use with age revealed that

increases in Internet usage were associated with increased loneliness and decreased

social support more for teenagers than for adults. Also, increases in Internet use

were linked to greater increases in stress for teenagers than for adults.

Kraut et al offered two hypotheses regarding the causal mechanisms

underlying this finding. The first causal explanation is the possible use of the

Internet as a displacement of social activity. They believed that individuals may be

substituting time on the Internet for time previously spent engaging in social

activities. In this respect, the Internet can be compared to watching television, or

other passive, nonsocial activities, and use of the Internet could lead to social

withdrawal and alienation. However, the authors noted that the Internet is often

used for social purposes and their results showed that Internet use was associated


14

with negative outcomes even when the Internet was being used in social ways (i.e.

for e-mail).

The second hypothesis proposed by the researchers to account for the

results speaks to the strength of on-line social relationships. They noted that many

on-line relationships seemed to be weaker than off-line relationships and suggested

that perhaps, by using the Internet, people are substituting poorer quality social

relationships for better relationships.

One critique of the Homenet study (Rierdan, 1999) questioned whether the

findings actually supported a link between the Internet and depression. Rierdan

challenged the use of the CES-D as a measure of depression by citing studies that

suggest the CES-D reflects general distress and not depression per se. In addition,

none of the participants in the study met clinical cutoffs for depression. In

Rierdan’s opinion, “these individuals had low levels of distress. As a group, they

were not depressed - before or after the study” (1999, pg. 781). Yet, the link

between the Internet and depression received the most media attention as

evidenced by the New York Times front page headline that read “Sad, Lonely

World Discovered in Cyberspace” (Harmon, 1998).

Further research has demonstrated a relationship between Internet addiction

and depression (Young & Rodgers, 1998). In a study by Young and Rodgers,

participants who were deemed “Internet addicts” used the Internet an average of 38

hours a week, while their non-addicted counterparts used the Internet

approximately 8 hours per week. Addicted Internet users had significantly lower


15

grades in school, more relationship difficulties, and reduced occupational

performance than nonaddicted users. In addition, Internet addicts reported mild to

moderate levels of depression on the Beck Depression Inventory compared to

normative data.

Sanders, Field, Diego, and Kaplan (2000) further investigated the link

between Internet use and depression and social isolation among adolescents.

Participants for this study were 89 high school seniors comprised of 37 males and

52 females. Level of Internet use was assessed by asking participants to respond to

the single question, “How many hours per day do you spend of the Internet?”

Those who selected “less than one hour a day” were classified as low users and

others who selected “more than two hours a day” were categorized as high users.

Participants also completed The Intimacy Scale to measure the quality of

relationships with parents and peers and the Center for Epidemiological Studies-

Depression Scale to measure depression. Results indicated that low Internet users

had significantly better relationships with their mothers and peers than high

Internet users. Level of Internet use was not significantly related to depression in

this study. Hence, these findings continue to support the link between frequent use

of the Internet and poorer social relationships among adolescents.

There is some evidence to suggest that the Internet and World Wide Web

are being used by children as a displacement of other social activities. Henke

(1999) conducted an exploratory study to examine whether the Web is being used

by children as a substitute for other media and non-media related activities.


16

Participants for this study were 23 fourth grade students ranging in age from nine

to eleven. The sample was comprised of 12 girls and 11 boys. Participants

completed a pretest questionnaire called “Facts About Me” in which they were

asked to select their favorite after-school activities from the following choices:

play a sport, play a musical instrument, do homework, watch TV, play video

games, read, visit and play inside with friends or siblings, visit and play outside

with friends or siblings, use the computer, play with toys by myself, do art work, or

other. After completing the questionnaire the children participated in a hands-on

Internet session. Lastly, they completed a posttest questionnaire comprised of

questions assessing their enjoyment of the Internet and their preference for using

the Internet compared to their pre-selected favorite after-school activities. Results

indicated that 39% would prefer to surf the Net than participate in their favorite

after-school activity. The children who selected social activities as their favorite

were more likely to give them up to surf the Net than those who selected solitary

activities as their favorite. In fact, 79% of subjects said they would prefer to surf

the Net rather than play with friends or siblings inside and 89% said they would

prefer to surf the Net rather than play with friends or siblings outside. In contrast,

only 33% who chose reading as their favorite activity and 38% who chose playing

a musical instrument as their favorite activity indicated a preference for surfing the

Net than engaging in those hobbies.

Izenberg and Lieberman assert that the Internet has the potential for both

positive and negative implications for children’s health. More specifically, ‘‘the


17

Internet, like every other communication medium, has the capacity to enlighten or

to waste time” (1998b, p. 398). They offered several strategies to combat

children’s use of the Internet as a displacement of other important activities. For

example, parents can teach their children to develop time management skills in the

context of Internet usage. In this way, children will learn how to set priorities and

organize their schedules to achieve important goals. By including children in the

decision-making process regarding the amount of time they can allot for Internet

use, parents can empower their children and facilitate the development of

responsibility. The authors did caution that excessive Internet use among

adolescents may be indicative of deeper social or emotional problems.

Internet Use and Social Skills

Research has shown that interaction with peers plays a crucial role in

children’s development of interpersonal skills and social competence (Griffiths,

1997). Selnow (1984) introduced the notion of “electronic friends” to describe

children who turned to video games for companionship instead of other children.

In 1997 Griffiths extended this concept to Internet users, suggesting that children

and adolescents may be using the Internet as friends instead of interacting with

their peers. The socially isolating use of computers as electronic friends has

negative implications for both children’s and adolescent’s development of social

skills.

The risks associated with use of the Internet tend to receive tremendous

attention, however there are several potential benefits of Internet use for children


18

and adolescents that are not widely publicized. Contrary to the notion of the

Internet as a device of social alienation and withdrawal, the Internet can provide a

forum in which children can practice social interactions. Communication on the

Internet differs from real-life exchanges in several ways. One of the most unique

features of Internet communication is that individuals can choose to communicate

with one another while concealed behind the protective cloak of anonymity

(McKenna & Bargh, 2000). The anonymity of Internet interactions may reduce the

anxiety commonly experienced by introverted or socially anxious youngsters and

allow them to practice on-line relationships (Bremer & Rauch, 1998). This

opportunity to engage in social interactions can serve to enhance social skills

acquisition. A question to be asked is: how does anonymous communication on the

Internet impact on social skills development?

When people are anonymous, their self-awareness is reduced and

deindividuation occurs. Deindividuation, though mainly associated with negative

behaviors, can have either positive or negative effects. Deindividuation causes

individuals to rely more on external, situational cues than on internal standards in

guiding their behavior. In relation to the Internet, deindividuation can lead people

to be more direct, blunt and straight-forward than they would be if they were not

anonymous. Research has shown that greater hostility, aggression, and

nonconforming behavior are more likely to occur in the context of computer-

mediated interactions than face to face exchanges (McKenna & Bargh, 2000).


19

Chat rooms, which are Internet sites in which individuals can anonymously

engage in social interactions, have been attacked by the popular media as

dangerous territory for children and adolescents. They are seen as places where

child predators may be lurking. In response to this allegation, Bremer and Rauch

(1998) observed the discussion in America Online’s Kids Only and Teen chat

rooms for 321 minutes during the weekend and after-school hours. They recorded

the number of aggressive comments, sexual comments and curses. Results of this

study indicated that there was one aggressive comment per hour in Kids Only chat

rooms and two aggressive comments an hour in Teen chat rooms. In terms of

sexual comments, they found one sexual comment every 21 minutes in the Kids

Only rooms and one sexual comment every 4 minutes in Teen rooms. Curses

occurred the most frequently, with one curse every 15 minutes in Kids Only rooms

and one curse every 1.5 minutes in Teen rooms.

However, deindividuation can also have a positive effect. People who are

anxious in social situations have the freedom to take risks when communicating

with others on-line, which might lead them to reveal aspects of their true selves.

Izenberg and Lieberman (1998a) noted that “anonymity allows for more truthful

questions and responses. Online people (at least ideally) may be judged more by

the quality of their ideas and how they express them, and not so much by their age

or the way they look or behave. Preconceptions based on appearance, gender, race,

and age fade away in online discussions. People who would not be inclined to talk

with each other if they had met in person may discover some rewarding


20

interactions with people they have met online but have never seen” (pg. 337). This

feeling of security can have tremendous benefits for identity construction as well

as facilitate social skills development.

Turkle (1995) described the computer as a gateway that allows people to

forge connections with other people and to access places and information that were

previously inaccessible to them. The gateway can also serve as a mirror by helping

people with the search for the self. According to Turkle, the Internet is akin to an

experimental laboratory where people can try on different aspects of their

personality to see if they fit. In this capacity, the Internet facilitates identity and

role construction.

The World Wide Web can offer children a chance to communicate with

diverse individuals with whom they might not come into contact and provide them

with a wide array of opportunities to explore their interests (Druin & Platt, 1998).

As stated earlier, the Internet can also be a place where children can interface with

similar individuals in an anonymous way. The use of anonymity can have benefits

for children and adolescents exploring aspects of their identity, as illustrated by the

following quote from a ten year old boy:

One of the greatest things about the Internet is that no one has to know who you are... There have been times people my own age may not be interested in what I am interested in, and, at the same time, people who are older than I am, who might be interested, do not always want to spend time with someone so much younger than they are. But if you are on the Internet, things like age are unimportant - or invisible, anyway - if you want them to be. (Long,1994, p. 43).


21

Bremer and Rauch (1998) observed that children and adolescents can assert

themselves on the Internet without fear of the consequences that would accompany

their actions in face to face interactions. In their observation of Teen and Kids

Only chat rooms, they noted that children set limits on one another more quickly

and directly than they would in real-life situations. The anonymity of the Internet

facilitated children's interactions by eliminating their fear of lasting social

consequences, such as alienating a classmate who would be encountered on a daily

basis.

Face to face social interactions are much more anxiety provoking for some

individuals than others. Socially anxious children and adolescents may be using the

Internet to practice interpersonal interactions or they may turn to the Internet as a

form of social withdrawal. The current investigation will explore the relationship

between Internet use and social withdrawal and social skills deficits in

adolescence. While previous studies have linked high levels of Internet usage with

loneliness and depression, the relationship between Internet use and social skills

deficits and social withdrawal has yet to be explored.

Earlier studies investigating the psychology of Internet usage have

classified Internet users according to their level of Internet use (i.e. high, low). The

present investigation differs from previous studies by considering not only the

frequency of Internet usage, but also the manner in which the Internet is being used

by adolescents (i.e. for social or non-social purposes) as these variables relate to

social development. In this way the results can help to distinguish between


22

adolescents who turn to the Internet as a mechanism of social avoidance and

withdrawal and those who seek social interaction via the Internet.

Statement o f Purpose

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between Internet

use and various aspects of adolescent social development, which included limited

peer status, conflict with peers, social skills deficits, social introversion, isolation,

and social withdrawal. While previous studies have linked high levels of Internet

usage with loneliness and depression, this study attempted to identify a potential

cause of increased loneliness and depression by looking at the relationship between

Internet usage and social development. Children may be turning to the Internet due

to their discomfort with socializing with peers. The Internet may provide a safer

social environment for shy, socially anxious children, or it may provide a place for

socially avoidant children to circumvent social interactions altogether.

Earlier studies investigating the psychology of Internet usage have only

classified Internet users according to their level of Internet use (i.e. high, low).

Another way this study differed from previous studies was by considering not only

the frequency of Internet usage, but also the manner in which the Internet was

being used by adolescents as predictors of social withdrawal and social skills

deficits. In this way the results can help to distinguish between adolescents who

turn to the Internet as a mechanism of social avoidance and withdrawal and those

who seek social interaction via the Internet.


23

Hypotheses

There were two main sets of hypotheses guiding this investigation - one

concerned the frequency of use of the Internet by adolescents and the other related

to the type of Internet use.

1) There will be a significant positive relationship between high levels of

Internet use and Limited Peer Status, Conflict with Peers, and Social Skills

Deficits.

2) There will be a significant positive relationship between high levels of

Internet use and Social Introversion, Isolation, and Social Withdrawal.

3) There will be a significant positive relationship between Asocial use of the

Internet and Limited Peer Status, Conflict with Peers, and Social Skills

Deficits.

4) There will be a significant negative relationship between Social use of the

Internet and Limited Peer Status, Conflict with Peers, and Social Skills

Deficits.

5) There will be a significant positive relationship between Asocial use of the

Internet and Social Introversion, Isolation, and Social Withdrawal.

6) There will be a significant negative relationship between Social use of the

Internet and Social Introversion, Isolation, and Social Withdrawal.


24

METHOD

Participants

Participants for this study were 104 private school students in New York

City ranging froml3 to 18-years-old, with a mean age of 16. Fifty-five percent of

the participants were female (n=57) and 45% were male (n=47). The ethnic

composition of this sample of adolescents was 64% White (n=66), 13% Asian

(n=13), 11% Black (n=l 1), 11% Hispanic (n=l 1), and 3% Other (n=3). The data

collected for one participant were excluded from the statistical analysis because

this participant did not use the Internet outside of school.

Materials

Participants completed a survey created by the researcher entitled

“Activities Questionnaire for Students” (Appendix A). On this survey participants

were asked to provide demographic information, such as their age, gender, and

sibling information. Additional questions required participants to check off the

after-school or weekend activities in which they participate and to circle whether

they primarily engage in these activities by themselves or with others. The next

question required participants to rank order the amount of time they spend

engaging in each after-school or weekend activity. At this point the questionnaire

focused more specifically on participant’s use of the Internet. Questions in this

section asked if participants had access to the Internet outside of school, where

they access the Internet outside of school, how long they have had Internet access,


25

how many hours they spend on the Internet each day during a typical week, and

how many hours they spend on the Internet each day during a typical weekend.

From a list of choices, participants were asked to indicate which Internet activities

they engage in, and, for e-mail, chat rooms, instant messenger, and on-line games,

to circle whether they mostly interact with people they already know or with

people they met while on-line. Participants were asked to report the frequency of

their Internet activities in two different ways: first, by ranking their Internet

activities according to the amount of time spent on each and second, by assigning a

percent to the time spent on each Internet activity. This also served as a measure of

internal consistency. At the end of the questionnaire participants were asked to

respond to 42 true/false items taken from the Personality Inventory for Youth.

The Personality Inventory fo r Youth (PIY). The PIY was created by David

Lachar and Christian Gruber in 199S for use in the assessment of psychological

adjustment in children and adolescents ranging from 9 through 18 years of age.

The PIY is a self-report measure comprised of true-false statements that are written

at a third grade level. Many of the items on the PIY were taken from the Parent

Inventory for Children - Revised (PIC-R) and translated into a first person format.

There are a total of nine clinical scales on the PIY, which yield raw scores that can

be converted into T-scores with clinical cut-offs. Standardization of the PIY was

conducted on two samples, one of 2,327 regular education students and the other

of 1,178 clinically referred students.


26

The present study utilized the Social Withdrawal and Social Skills Deficits

scales of the PIY (see Appendices B and C). These scales have demonstrated solid

psychometric properties. The Social Withdrawal scale is comprised o f two

subscales, Social Introversion and Isolation. Test-retest reliability for the overall

Withdrawal scale is .89, and it is .90 for Social Introversion and .74 for Isolation.

Internal consistency is .78 for the Withdrawal scale, .78 for the Social Introversion

subscale and .55 for the Isolation subscale. This scale is content valid as 14 of the

18 items came from the PIC-R. Construct validity has been established through

correlations with measures of social skills from the PIC-R.

The Social Skills scale is comprised of two subscales, Limited Peer Status

and Conflict with Peers. Internal consistency reliability was found to be .84 for the

Social Skills scale, .79 for Limited Peer Status, and .74 for Conflict with Peers.

Test-retest reliability was found to be .84 for the Social Skills Deficits scale, .85

for Limited Peer Status, and .74 for Conflict with Peers. Concurrent validity has

been established through correlations with the PEI Social Isolation scale (.45) and

an independent assessment of social support (-.43).

Procedure

Approval was obtained from the Pace University Research Review

Committee as well as the headmaster of a New York City private school to

conduct this study. Letters and permission forms were sent home to the parents of

the students providing a description of the study and requesting active informed

consent. Stamped envelopes were provided for the parents to mail the signed


27

permission forms directly back to the researcher. Students whose parents had

granted permission completed the Activities Questionnaire for Students during the

school day. The survey took approximately 15 minutes to complete. Participants

were asked to respond as truthfully as possible to all questions. They were assured

that their participation in this study was anonymous and voluntary and that anyone

could discontinue participation at any time without penalty should they feel

uncomfortable. Upon completion of the survey students were who interested in

receiving a brief summary of the research results provided contact information for

the researcher.


28

RESULTS

Description o f the Sample

As stated earlier, all but one participant had access and used the Internet

outside of school. Regarding the location of Internet use, the vast majority of

participants used the Internet in their homes (see Table 1 below). Specifically, 99%

used the Internet at home, 45% used the Internet at a friend’s home, 27% used the

Internet at a relative’s home, 7% used the Internet at an Internet cafe, and 16%

used the Internet in other places.

Table I

Location o f Internet Use

Location of Internet Use Percent

Home 99%

Friend’s Home 45%

Relative’s Home 27%

Internet Cafe 7%

Other 16%


29

An overwhelming majority of the participants had access to the Internet for at least

one year. Specifically, 89% of the participants had access to the Internet for more

than 2 years, 9% had Internet access for 1-2 years, and 2% obtained Internet access

less than one year ago (see Table 2 below).

Table 2

Length o f Internet Access

Length of Internet Access Percent

More than 2 years 89%

One - two years 9%

Less than one year 2%


30

As reflected in Table 3 below, the following Internet activities were endorsed by

this sample: 99% used electronic mail, 87% went to sites on the World Wide Web,

34% participated in chat rooms, 81% communicated with others through Instant

Messenger, 36% played single player on-line games, 30% played multi-player on

line games, 18% posted messages to message boards/discussion groups, and 19%

engaged in other Internet activities, which included downloading music, shopping,

and creating web sites.

Table 3

Internet Activities

Internet Activities Percent

Electronic mail (E-mail) 99%

Go to sites on the World Wide Web 87%

Participate in Chat Rooms 34%

Communicate with others through Instant Messenger / Buddy Lists

81%

Play on-line games: Single Player 36%

Play on-line games: Multi-player (vs. human opponents)

30%

Post messages to Message Boards / Discussion Groups

18%

Other (Download music, shopping, etc.) 19%


31

Table 4 lists various types of Internet communication and displays the nature of the

relationship between the participants in this sample and the persons with whom

they mostly communicate. Of the 98% of participants who used e-mail, 99%

interacted mostly with people they already knew. Of the 35% of the sample who

participated in chat rooms, 78% chatted mostly with people they met while on-line.

Of the 80% of the sample who used instant messenger, 98% communicated mostly

with people they already knew. Of the 31% of the sample who played on-line

games, 78% played against people they met while on-line (see Table 4 below).

Table 4

On-line Interactions

People I know People I met on-line

E-Mail 99% 1%

Chat Rooms 22% 78%

Instant Messenger 98% 2%

On-line games 22% 78%


32

Frequency o f Internet Use. During the weekdays the majority of

participants, 38%, spent 1-2 hours per day on the Internet, 25% spent less than one

hour per day on the Internet, 15% spent 2-4 hours per day on the Internet, 13%

spent 4-6 hours per day on the Internet, and 9% spent more than 6 hours per day on

the Internet. During the weekends, 35% of participants spent 2-4 hours per day on

the Internet, 35% spent 1-2 hours per day on the Internet, 19% spent less than one

hour per day on the Internet, 8% spent 4-6 hours per day on the Internet, and 4%

spent more than 6 hours per day on the Internet (see Table 5 below). In order to

estimate each participant’s daily use of the Internet a weighted '"time on” variable

was created by adding weekday use and weekend use. The mean of the weighted

time on variable was 2.5.

Table 5

Frequency o f Internet Use

Weekday Internet Use Weekend Internet Use

Less than 1 hour a day 25% 19%

1-2 hours a day 38% 35%

2-4 hours a day 15% 35%

4-6 hours a day 13% 8%

More than 6 hours a day 9% 4%


33

Type o f Internet Use. Type of Internet use was determined by examining

the rankings and percentages assigned to each particular Internet activity (see Table

6 below). The following list indicates the percentage of participants who ranked

each Internet activity as number one: Electronic Mail - 32%, Go to Sites on the

World Wide Web - 29%, Participate in Chat Rooms - 8%, Communicate with

others through Instant Messenger - 44%, Play single-player on-line games - 3%,

Play multi-player on-line games - 3%. Post messages to Message

Boards/Discussion Groups - 11%, Other 20%. The mean percentage of time

assigned to each Internet activity is as follows;: Electronic Mail - 30.17%, Go to

Sites on the World Wide Web - 29.91%, Participate in Chat Rooms - 13.46%,

Communicate with others through Instant Messenger - 34.80%, Play single-player

on-line games - 9.01%, Play multi-player on-line games - 12.68%, Post messages

to Message Boards/Discussion Groups - 12.47%, Other 22.0%.


34

Table 6

Type o f Internet Use

Internet Activity Percent Ranked Internet Activity

as#l

Mean percentage of Total Internet time per Activity

Electronic mail (E-mail) 32% 30.17%

Go to sites on the World Wide Web 29% 29.91%

Participate in Chat Rooms 8% 13.46%

Communicate with others through Instant Messenger / Buddy Lists

44% 34.80%

Play on-line games: Single Player 3% 9.01%


3% 12.68%

Post messages to Message Boards / Discussion Groups

11% 12.47%

Other (Download music, shopping) 20% 22.00%

For the purpose of statistical analysis participants were divided into three

categories based upon the level of social interaction of their primary use of the

Internet (see Table 7 below). The participants’ primary use of the Internet was

determined by identifying the Internet activity selected as the most frequent online

activity, which was the Internet activity that was assigned a ranking of number one.

The Internet activities were then divided into three categories according to the

level of social involvement and three categories of Internet users were created: Not


35

Social users (surfed the Web and played single-player on-line games).

Asynchronous Social users (e-mailed and posted to message boards), and

Synchronous Social users (went into chat room, used instant messenger, and

played multi-player on-line games). Therefore, an individual who ranked “Instant

Messenger” as their top Internet activity would be classified as a Synchronous

Social Internet user and someone who ranked “Surf the World Wide Web” as their

number one Internet activity would be classified as a Not Social Internet user.

Participants who were deemed “Not Social” primarily engaged in solitary Internet

activities that did not put them into contact with other individuals. These activities

included going to sites on the World Wide Web and playing single player on-line

games. The “Not Social” category comprised 26% of the sample, and included 9

females and 18 males. Participants categorized as “Asynchronous Social”

primarily engaged in Internet activities in which they interacted with other

individuals in delayed time. Example of these activities were e-mailing and posting

messages to message boards/discussion groups. Thirty-four percent of this sample

was categorized as “Asynchronous Social” Internet users. There were 24 females

and 11 males in this category. Participants placed into the “Synchronous Social”

category primarily engaged in Internet activities in which they interacted with other

individuals in real time, approximating in vivo social interaction. These activities

included communicating with others through instant messenger, participating in

chat rooms, and playing multi-player on-line games against human opponents.


36

40% of this sample was categorized as “Synchronous Social”, which included 23

females and IS males.

Table 7

Categories o f Internet Users

Type of Internet User Total Percent Number of Females Number of Males

Not Social 26% 9 18

Asynchronous Social 34% 24 11

Synchronous Social 40% 23 18

Analysis o f Hypotheses

Pearson product-moment calculations were performed to test the

relationships between frequency of Internet use and the six social development

variables, limited peer status, conflict with peers, social skills deficits, social

introversion, isolation, and social withdrawal, and between type of Internet use and

the aforementioned social development variables (see Table 8 below).

Hypothesis One. It was predicted that there would be a significant positive

relationship between high levels of Internet use and Limited Peer Status, Conflict

with Peers, and Social Skills Deficits. Contrary to prediction, a Pearson product-

moment correlation revealed that time spent on the Internet during the weekdays

was significantly negatively related to limited peer status (r (103) = -.207, p =

.036). Time spent on the Internet during the weekdays was not significantly related

to conflict with peers or social skills deficits. In addition, neither time spent on the


37

Internet during the weekends nor the weighted variable for total time on the

Internet were significantly related to Limited Peer Status, Conflict with Peers, and

Social Skills Deficits.


38

Table 8

Relationships between Internet Use and Social Development Variables

Limited Peer Status

C onflict with Peers

SocialSkills

DeficitsSocial

IntroversionIsolation Social

Withdrawal

W eekday Internet Use -21* .03 -.15 -.16 -.07 -.14

W eekend Internet U se .09 .08 .10 .06 .02 .06

Total Internet Use -.11 .06 -.06 -.08 -.04 -.08

ElectronicMail

.24* .18 .25* .24* .14 .24*

G o to W eb Sites

.29** .02 .23* .13 .08 .13

C hat Room s .37* .17 .35* -.01 .09 .05

InstantM essenger

-.25* -.06 -.20 -.26* -.15 -.25*

SinglePlayerGam es

-.11 -.01 -.09 .32 .06 .24

M ulti-playerGam es -.37* -.17 -.35 -.22 .04 -.11

Post to M essage Boards

.09 .26 .15 -.17 -.09 -M

O ther .57 -.01 .52 .06 -.06 .01

*p < .05. **p<. 01.

Note, n sizes range from 31 to 103 because they are based on the number o f individuals who engaged in each particular Internet activity. W hile 103 participants reported using the Internet during the weekday, only 3 1 participants reported playing multi-player on-line gam es.


39

Hypothesis Two. Hypothesis Two predicted a significant positive

relationship between high levels of Internet use and Social Introversion, Isolation,

and Social Withdrawal. This hypothesis was not supported.

Hypothesis Three. A significant positive relationship between Asocial use

of the Internet and Limited Peer Status, Conflict with Peers, and Social Skills

Deficits was predicted. To test these relationships correlations were calculated

between the percent of time spent on each Asocial Internet activity (going to Web

sites, playing single player on-line games) and the social development variables. In

support of the hypothesis, time spent going to sites on the World Wide Web was

significantly related to limited peer status ( r (91) = .286, p = .006) and social skills

deficits (r (91) = .225, p = .032). However, time spent on the World Wide Web

was not significantly related to Conflict with Peers. Time spent playing single

player on-line games was not significantly related to limited peer status, conflict

with peers, or social skills deficits.

Hypothesis Four. It was predicted that there would be a significant negative

relationship between Social use of the Internet and Limited Peer Status, Conflict

with Peers, and Social Skills Deficits. Pearson-product moment correlations were

calculated to determine the relationship between both the Asynchronous Social

Internet activities, the use of e-mail and posting messages to message boards, and

the Synchronous Social Internet activities, the use of Instant Messenger, chat

rooms, and playing multi-player on-line games, and the social development

variables. The results of the correlations based on Asynchronous Social Internet


40

activities were contrary to prediction. There was a significant positive relationship

between the use of e-mail and limited peer status (r (102) = .244, p = .013) and

social skills deficits (r (102) = .25, p - .011). The use of e-mail was not

significantly related to conflict with peers. The results for the correlations between

posting messages to message boards/discussion groups and limited peer status,

conflict with peers, and social skills deficits were not significant. The results of the

correlations based on Synchronous Social Internet activities were mixed. Contrary

to prediction, participation in chat rooms was significantly positively correlated

with limited peer status (r (35) = .372, p = .028) and social skills deficits (r (35) =

.353, p = .037). Chat room participation was not significantly related to conflict

with peers. In support of the hypothesis, the use of instant messenger was

significantly negatively related to limited peer status (r (82) = -.247, p = .025).

However, instant messenger use was not significantly related to conflict with peers

or social skills deficits. Playing multi-player on-line games was also significantly

negatively correlated with limited peer status (r (31) = -.37, p = .04) but was not

significantly related to conflict with peers or social skills deficits.

Hypothesis Five. The prediction of a significant positive relationship

between Asocial use of the Internet and Social Introversion, Isolation, and Social

Withdrawal was not supported. Surfing the World Wide Web and playing single

player on-line games were not significantly related to social introversion, isolation,

or social withdrawal.


41

Hypothesis Six. A significant negative relationship between Social use of

the Internet and Social Introversion, Isolation, and Social Withdrawal was

predicted. Again, both the Asynchronous Social and Synchronous Social Internet

activities were examined. The results of the correlations based on Asynchronous

Social Internet activities were contrary to prediction. There was a significant

positive relationship between the use of E-mail and social introversion (r (102) =

.236, p = .017) and social withdrawal (r (102) = .238, p = .016). However, time

spent posting messages to message boards/discussion groups was not significantly

related to social introversion, isolation, or social withdrawal. The results of the

correlations based on Synchronous Social Internet activities provided partial

support for the hypothesis. The use of Instant Messenger was significantly

negatively correlated with social introversion (r (82) = -.255, p = .021) and social

withdrawal (r (82) = -.248, p = .025). However, time spent in chat rooms and time

spent playing multi-player on-line games was not significantly related to social

introversion, isolation, or social withdrawal.


42

Additional Analyses

Several research studies suggest gender differences in adolescent

socialization (Denmark, Rabinowitz, & Sechzer, 2000). To further explore this

distinction, a gender by type of Internet use 2 x 3 ANOVA was calculated to

analyze group differences (see Table 9 below). A main effect was found for type of

Internet use for limited peer status (F(2, 100) = 7.60, p = .001), social skills

deficits (F(2, 100) = 6.36, p = .003), social introversion (F(2, 100) = 4.85, p = .01),

and social withdrawal (F(2,100) = 4.80, p = .01). No main effects were found for

gender and no interaction effects were found.

Table 9

F Ratios for Gender by Type o f Internet Use ANOVA for Social Development

Variables

Gender(G) Type of Internet Use (T) G x T

Limited Peer Status 0.05 7.60** 4.54

Conflict with Peers 0.45 1.51 0.23

Social Skills Deficits 0.19 6.36* 6.77

Social Introversion 0.18 4.85** 5.06

Isolation 0.17 1.60 0.09

Social Withdrawal 0.01 4.80** 0.43*p< .05. **/;<.01.

Post-hoc analyses were conducted to determine differences between

specific types of Internet users (see Table 10 below). Participants who were “Not

Social” Internet users had significantly higher scores on Limited Peer Status than


43

participants who were “Synchronous Social” Internet users (Tukey = 2.78, p =

.001). Participants who were “Asynchronous Social” Internet users also had

significantly higher scores on Limited Peer Status than participants who were

“Synchronous Social” Internet users {Tukey = 1.83, p = .032). Participants who

were “Not Social” Internet users had significantly higher scores on Social Skills

Deficits than participants who were “Synchronous Social” Internet users {Tukey =

3.44,p = .004). Participants who were “Not Social” Internet users had significantly

higher scores on Social Introversion than participants who were “Synchronous

Social” Internet users {Tukey = 1.54, p = .014). Participants who were “Not Social”

Internet users had significantly higher scores on Social Withdrawal than

participants who were “Synchronous Social” Internet users {Tukey = 2.20, p =

.014).


44

Table 10

Social Development Variables by Type o f Internet Use

Not Social AsynchronousSocial

Synchronous Social

Limited Peer Status 5.94a 4.95a 2.99b

Conflict with Peers 2.00a 1.59a 1.26*

Social Skills Deficits

7.94a 6.53 4.25b

Social Introversion 2.50a 2.07 0.89b

Isolation 2.1 Ia 1.84, 1.42a

Social Withdrawal 4.61 a 3.91 2.31b

Note. Means having the same subscript are not significantly different at p < .05 in the Tukey honestly significant difference comparison.

An additional exploratory analysis was conducted to investigate whether

racial/ethnic differences were related to the various categories of Internet users. A

one-way ANOVA found no significant differences.


45

DISCUSSION

The present investigation sought to examine the relationship between use

of the Internet and social development in adolescence. This exploration is

particularly timely in light of the vast expansion of the Internet in our society and

the numerous questions and concerns that have arisen relating to the impact of this

technology on our lives. The Internet is a powerful medium that is changing the

shape of everyday life, from the way research is conducted to the way items are

purchased. The Internet is simultaneously a source of news and entertainment, the

world's largest shopping mall, a valuable resource of limitless information, an

arena for business transactions, as well as a means through which individuals can

communicate with one another. As such, it holds the power to either isolate

individuals from one another or bring them closer together, depending on the way

that it is used. Several different methods of communication are available on the

Internet, including electronic mail, instant messenger, chat rooms, and discussion

groups. These forms of communication differ from traditional social exchanges in

several ways. The most obvious distinction is that online interactions lack the

visual, auditory, and other sensory cues present during face-to-face interactions. In

addition, some forms of online communication, such as e-mail and message

boards, occur in a deferred time format, allowing individuals additional time to

ponder their responses and select their words with greater care and precision than

is generally acceptable in in vivo interactions. Other forms of online

communication, such as instant messenger and chat rooms, more closely resemble


46

in-person social interactions since they occur in real-time and permit individuals to

instantly respond to one another. However, these forms of social exchange still

lack the sensory cues present during face-to-face contacts. An additional feature of

online communication that sets it apart from traditional social interaction is that

individuals can choose to conceal their identities and remain anonymous while on

the Internet. The anonymity of online communication certainly holds significant

implications for the way individuals meet and present themselves to one another.

Since the developmental stage of adolescence is such a crucial period for social

development, it is important to examine how the rapid expansion of Internet use

and the different types of social interactions widely available to today’s teenagers

are related to the acquisition and growth of social competencies during this time.

Results of this study showed that, for the most part, the amount of time

spent on the Internet was not related to poor social development outcomes,

including limited peer status, conflict with peers, social skills deficits, social

introversion, isolation, and social withdrawal. The only significant finding

regarding time spent on the Internet showed that the more time spent on the

Internet during the week, the higher an individual’s peer status. Hence, this finding

contradicts previous research that linked high levels of Internet use with poor

social development (Sanders et al, 2000). In fact, according to these results, the

teenagers who spend the most time online are the most popular. It seems that in

today’s society, Internet use has become so commonplace among teenagers that

large quantities of time spent online alone does not necessarily signify poor social


development. Perhaps the initial studies on the correlates of Internet use conducted

just a few years ago no longer capture an accurate portrayal of today’s Internet

user. As demonstrated by statistics, Internet access has grown so rapidly with each

passing year that the Internet user of two years ago may be different than today's

online user. In any event, the present study found that knowledge of the number of

hours an individual spends on the Internet is not a particularly good indicator of

level of social development.

The present study was unique in that it went beyond a simple look at the

amount of time adolescents spend on the Internet. In an attempt to gain a greater

understanding of the function the Internet serves in the lives of today’s teens, this

study delved into the world of cyberspace by asking adolescents to identify the

specific Internet activities in which they participate. Results showed that the type

of Internet activities in which adolescents partake did prove to be related to social

development. Adolescents who spent the majority of their Internet time engaged in

solitary activities had lower peer status, greater social skills deficits, were more

socially introverted, and more socially withdrawn than adolescents who spent their

Internet time engaged in social exchanges with others. Thus, the adolescents who

primarily used the Internet to surf the World Wide Web or play single player on

line games selected Internet activities that do not require interactions with other

humans. This result supports the belief that socially anxious adolescents may be

turning to the Internet as a place to escape from social interaction. Introverted

youngsters may naturally gravitate towards non-social Internet activities because


48

they feel insecure and anxious around people and more comfortable in the world of

cyberspace, devoid of contact with others. These teenagers were found to possess

social skills deficits. Their poor social skills may contribute to their anxiety and

discomfort in social situations and lead them to participate in solitary Internet

activities. However, non-social Internet activities do not provide these adolescents

with opportunities to develop their social skills, creating a vicious cycle of social

difficulties.

One surprising result of this study was that adolescents who interact with

others on the Internet in delayed time, such as those whose primary Internet

activity is e-mail, had lower peer status, greater social skills deficits, were more

socially introverted, and more socially withdrawn than their counterparts who

primarily use the Internet for real-time social interactions. This finding suggests

that asynchronous social interaction on the Internet, while it does permit

individuals to communicate with one another, is preferred by introverted

individuals. Deferred time Internet contact is much less threatening than both real

time Internet exchanges and face-to-face social contacts. When operating in real

time on the Internet, individuals are called upon to think quickly to keep up with

the pace of the conversation. In addition, the lack of visual cues in Internet social

exchanges may impair an individual’s ability to read social situations and respond

appropriately. Therefore, delayed social interaction on the Internet seems to be

more comfortable for those adolescents who are socially anxious, socially

withdrawn, and socially inexperienced.


49

In general, adolescents who primarily use the Internet to connect with other

individuals in real-time social exchanges had higher peer status, fewer social skills

deficits, were less socially introverted, and less socially withdrawn than their

counterparts whose primary Internet use is solitary. However, one interesting result

was discovered when looking specifically at the use of Chat Rooms. A significant

relationship was found between the use of Chat Rooms and limited peer status and

social skills deficits. This finding supports the notion that Chat Rooms provide a

safe forum for less socially adept adolescents to practice social interactions.

While gender was not significantly related to type of Internet use or social

development, an interesting trend was noticed when examining the gender

breakdown of categories of Internet users. There were twice as many males as

females in the category of “Not Social” Internet Users, which conforms to the

stereotypical view that females are more relational and connected to people than

males who are more independent and isolated from people.

Limitations

Several limitations of this study should be noted. One limitation of this

study concerns the generalizability of the results. Since participants all have access

to the Internet at home, the results cannot be generalized to children who do not

have computers at home. In addition, the Internet feature “Instant Messenger” does

not come as part of the package with many on-line providers. Instant Messenger

can be purchased and installed for an additional fee. The majority o f these

respondents had access to instant messenger, so they may come from higher


50

socioeconomic classes than other adolescents who do not have access to this

program. As private school students, the participants in this sample may represent

a distinct group of adolescents and therefore the findings cannot be extended to

apply to other samples.

In addition, the use of self-report measures introduces the possibility that

the data collected may not be completely accurate. The participants may have had

difficulty estimating their Internet use, which would affect the categories into

which they were placed for data analysis. In addition, response bias may have

occurred if individuals chose to respond in socially desirable ways so as to present

a favorable picture o f themselves to the researcher. Adolescents who are socially

withdrawn or limited in social skills may have been inclined to deny these social

difficulties when responding to items on the PIY. In addition, some respondents

may have less time on the Internet or not admitted to Chat Rooms for fear of a

social stigma attached to them. Lastly, due to the correlational nature of the

research design, causal statements cannot be applied to the results.

Implications for School-Clinical Child Psychology

Results of this investigation can be useful for school and child clinical

psychologists. By working closely with children and adolescents, school and child

clinical psychologists are poised to pick up on early warning signs that may point

to more serious psychological problems in later life. As reviewed earlier, socially

withdrawn and socially anxious children are at-risk for poor psychological

outcomes, which may include difficulty attaining educational success, keeping


51

stable jobs, maintaining relationships with others, and achieving financial stability

(Liebowitz, 1999). Social withdrawal in childhood is also believed to impede the

development of social skills, thwart the establishment of fhendships, and diminish

self-esteem (Rubin, LeMare & Lollis 1990). Since socially withdrawn youngsters

are at-risk for internalizing disorders and other negative outcomes, it is important

for psychologists to heed the warning signs of social withdrawal and work with

parents and adolescents early on to facilitate healthy social and psychological

development. Psychologists can inquire about an individual's Internet use to gain

some insight into their social development. According to the results of this study,

adolescents who spend large quantities of time on the Internet are not necessarily

lacking in social skills or hiding away in cyberspace. Rather, it is those adolescents

who are mostly using the Internet to avoid social interaction or to interact with

others in delayed time who are at greater risk for poor social development.

Areas fo r Further Research

As the Internet continues to play an increasingly large role in the lives of

today’s adolescents, it is important to gather information concerning exactly how

the Internet is being used by this population and to determine the impact o f Internet

use on adolescent social development. To increase the accuracy of self-reported

Internet use, future researchers may want to utilize more sophisticated measuring

instruments or request that participants keep a log of their specific Internet use. It

is also important that future researchers examine the Internet use of individuals

from all socioeconomic levels, not just students in private schools.


52

Future research could examine how the Internet is used by children at

different stages of development. For example, how does the Internet use of latency

age children differ from the Internet activities of adolescents? Additional studies

might delve into particular online experiences, such as adolescent's participation in

chat rooms, to gain a deeper understanding of the psychology of these individuals.

It is important to investigate the many different functions of Internet use, so that

the benefits and potential dangers of Internet use can be accurately identified.


53

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60

Appendix A.

Activities Questionnaire for Students

Gender: Female Male

Age: ______

Grade:______

Ethnicity/Race: Asian Black Hispanic White

Other (please specify)_________________________

Siblings: (please check and fill in how many sisters or brothers you have)

I am an only child

I have sisters

I have brothers

1. Which after-school or weekend activities do you participate in? (please check

all that apply and circle whether you do this activity primarily by yourself or

with others, when relevant)

Play a sport By Myself With Others

Play a musical instrument By Myself With Others

Do homework By Myself With Others

Watch television By Myself With Others

Exercise By Myself With Others

Play video games By Myself With Others

Read (books, magazines) By Myself With Others

Do artwork By Myself With Others

Talk on the telephone

Hang out with friends (Go to movies, shopping, etc.)

Computer/Internet

Other (please specify)_______________________


61

2. Place the following after-school activities in order according to the amount of time

that you spend on each every week (1 = the most time, 2 = the next highest, etc.)

Play a sport

Play a musical instrument

Do homework

Watch television

Exercise

Play video games

Read (books, magazines)

Do artwork

Talk on the telephone

Hang out with friends (Go to movies, shopping, etc.)

Computer/Internet

Other (please specify)________________________________________

3. Do you use a computer to access the Internet outside of school? Yes No

If you answered YES to question 3, please answer all the remaining questions.

If you answered NO to question 3, please skip ahead to question 12.

4. Where do you access the Internet outside of school? (check all that apply)

At home

At a friend’s home

At a relative’s home

Internet cafe

Other (please specify)____________________________________


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5. How long have you had Internet access outside of school?

Less than 1 year

1 - 2 years

More than 2 years

6. During a typical week, approximately how many hours did you spend on the

Internet each day after school? (Monday - Friday)

Less than 1 hour

1-2 hours

2-4 hours

4-6 hours

More than 6 hours

7. During a typical weekend, approximately how many hours did you spend on the

Internet each day? (Saturday - Sunday)

.Less than 1 hour

1-2 hours

2-4 hours

4-6 hours

More than 6 hours

8. Which of the following Internet activities do you engage in: (check all that apply)

Electronic mail (E-mail)

Go to sites on the World Wide Web (news, entertainment, sports)

Participate in Chat Rooms

Communicate with others through Instant Messenger/Buddy Lists

Play on-line games: single player

Play on-line games: multi-player (vs. human opponents)

Post messages to Message Boards/Discussion Groups

Other (please specify)_________________________________________


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9. For the following Internet activities, circle whether you mostly interact with

people you already know or with people who you met while on-line:

E-Mail

Chat Rooms

Instant Messenger

On-line games

People I know

People I know

People I know

People I know

People I met on-line




10. Place the following Internet activities in order according to the amount of time

that you spend on each during a typical week (1 = the most time, 2 = next highest)

_______Electronic mail




Play on-line games: Single player



Other (please specify)_________________________________________

11. Regardless of hours, indicate the percent of time you spent on each Internet

activity during a typical week (Note: The total should equal 100%)

_______Electronic mail




Play on-line games: Single player



Other (please specify)__________________________________________

= 100%


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Appendix B.

PERSONALITY INVENTORY FOR YOUTH

Social Skill* Deficit Scale

SSK1 - Limited Peer Status:

1. I often spend time with a group of other kids.

2. I have many friends of the opposite sex.

3. I am a good leader.

4. I like to play active games and sports.

5. I have more friends than most other kids.

6. I am a follower, not a leader.

7. Other kids look up to me as a leader.

8. Other people say that I have a lot of personality.

9. I am very popular with other kids.

10.1 am often a leader in groups.

11.1 often bring friends home.

12. People always listen when I speak.

13.1 am sure of myself in a group.

SSK2 - Conflict with Peers:

14.1 have many friends.

15. Other kids do not seem to listen to me or notice me much.

16.1 do not get along with the other students at school.

17.1 have very few friends.

18.1 am often rejected by other kids.

19. Other kids are often angry with me.

20.1 get along well with others most of the time.

21.1 prefer adults to other kids.

22. Other kids make fun of my ideas.

23 .1 seem to get along with everyone.

24 .1 wish that I were more able to make and keep friends.


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Appendix C.

PERSONALITY INVENTORY FOR YOUTH

Social Withdrawal Scale

WDL1 - Social Introversion

1. Talking to others makes me nervous.

2. Speaking up is a problem for me.

3. Shyness if my biggest problem.

4 .1 am shy with kids my own age.

5 .1 hardly ever talk.

6 .1 am often embarrassed.

7. Most of the time I am a quiet person.

8 .1 am shy with adults.

9 .1 am often afraid to meet new people.

10.1 am not at ease when I am with strangers.

WDL2 - Isolation

11. Except for going to school, I often stay in the house for days at a time.

12.1 do not like to be close to others.

13.1 often stay in my room for hours.

14.1 often take walks alone.

15.1 do not enjoy being with others.

16.1 have no true friend.

17.1 almost always play alone.

18.1 keep my thoughts to myself.


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Appendix D. Informed Consent

Dear Parent(s),

I am a doctoral student in Pace University’s School/Clinical Child psychology program. This letter is to request your consent for your child to participate in a research project I am conducting at the XXX School.

For my dissertation I have chosen to conduct research about the different types of activities that teenagers enjoy. I am interested in learning about both the activities that teenagers engage in as well as whether teenagers prefer to do things by themselves or with others. In order to participate, students at the XXX School will be asked to fill out a survey that asks questions about the type of activities that they typically engage in and about their preference for being alone or with others. The questionnaire will be administered during the school day and should take approximately 15 minutes to complete. Your child will also be asked to sign a consent sheet indicating their willingness to participate in the study.

The decision whether to grant permission for your child to participate in this study is your choice. Participation is not mandatory and your child will not be penalized if she or he does not participate. The information collected will be completely anonymous and your name and your child’s name will not appear anywhere on the study.

Please complete and sign the consent form at the bottom of this sheet and mail it directly to me in the envelope provided. If you have any further questions feel free to contact me by e-mail (listed above). I will be coming to the XXX School to conduct this research project within the next two weeks so I would greatly appreciate your response as soon as possible.

Thank you very much for your cooperation. I hope that the results of my study will make a significant contribution to our understanding of today’s teenagers.

Sincerely,

Erica Heitner, M.S.Ed.

□ Yes, I give permission for my daughter/son,______________________(Please print name)

to participate in the above mentioned research study.

□ No, I do not give permission for my daughter/son,_________________(Please print name)

to participate in the above mentioned research study.

Parent’s Signature Date


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